For students and practitioners, a comprehensive primer on the key literature in stream and river ecology.
 
The study of streams and rivers combines ecology, chemistry, hydrology, and geology to reveal the factors that control the biological diversity and functioning of these unique ecosystems. Although stream ecology is a relatively young discipline, foundational papers published over the past half century have shaped our current understanding of these ecosystems and have informed our efforts to manage and protect them. Organized by topics such as the physical template, community structure, food webs, ecosystem energetics, and nutrient dynamics, the chapters of this book offer summaries of the key literature, historical and contextual information, and insightful discussions of how past research has influenced present studies and may shape future work.

Wyatt F. Cross is professor of ecology at Montana State University. Jonathan P. Benstead is professor of biological sciences at the University of Alabama. Amy M. Marcarelli is professor of biological sciences and director of the Ecosystem Science Center at Michigan Technological University. Ryan A. Sponseller is associate professor of ecosystem ecology at Umeå University in Sweden.

Foreword by Nancy B. Grimm
Preface

1. Origins and Antecedents: The Headwaters of Stream Ecology
Jonathan P. Benstead, Amy M. Marcarelli, Ryan A. Sponseller, and Wyatt F. Cross
Patrick, R. 1949. “A Proposed Biological Measure of Stream Conditions, Based on a Survey of the Conestoga Basin, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania.” Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 101:277–341.
Margalef, R. 1960. “Ideas for a Synthetic Approach to the Ecology of Running Waters.” Internationale Revue der gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie 45:133–53.
Hynes, H. B. N. 1961. “The Invertebrate Fauna of a Welsh Mountain Stream.” Archiv für Hydrobiologie 57:344–88.
Nelson, D. J., and D. C. Scott. 1962. “Role of Detritus in the Productivity of a Rock Outcrop Community of a Piedmont Stream.” Limnology and Oceanography 7:396–413.
Ball, R. C., and F. F. Hooper. 1963. “Translocation of Phosphorus in a Trout Stream Ecosystem.” In Radioecology, edited by V. Schultz and A. W. J. Klement, 217–28. Washington, DC: Reinhold Publishing Corporation and the American Institute of Biological Sciences.
Minckley, W. L. 1963. “The Ecology of a Spring Stream, Doe Run, Meade County, Kentucky.” Wildlife Monographs 11:3–124.
Ross, H. H. 1963. “Stream Communities and Terrestrial Biomes.” Archiv für Hydrobiologie 59:235–42.

2. The Physical Template: Geomorphic and Hydrologic Underpinnings of Stream Ecosystems
Geoffrey C. Poole, Ellen E. Wohl, and Stephen P. Rice
Wolman, M. G., and J. P. Miller. 1960. “Magnitude and Frequency of Forces in Geomorphic Processes.” Journal of Geology 68:54–74.
Hynes, H. B. N. 1975. “The Stream and Its Valley.” Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen 19:1–15.
Frissell, C. A., W. J. Liss, C. E. Warren, and M. D. Hurley. 1986. “A Hierarchical Framework for Stream Habitat Classification: Viewing Streams in a Watershed Context.” Environmental Management 10:199–214.
Poff, N. L., J. D. Allan, M. B. Bain, J. R. Karr, K. L. Prestegaard, B. D. Richter, R. E. Sparks, and J. C. Stromberg. 1997. “The Natural Flow Regime: A Paradigm for River Conservation and Restoration.” BioScience 47:769–84.
Montgomery, D. R. 1999. “Process Domains and the River Continuum.” Journal of the American Water Resources Association 35:397–410.
Kasahara, T., and S. M. Wondzell. 2003. “Geomorphic Controls on Hyporheic Exchange Flow in Mountain Streams.” Water Resources Research 39:1005.

3. Streams as Unique Habitats
Debra S. Finn and David M. Merritt
Vannote, R. L., G. W. Minshall, K. W. Cummins, J. R. Sedell, and C. E. Cushing. 1980. “The River Continuum Concept.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 37:130–37.
Ward, J. V. 1989. “The Four-Dimensional Nature of Lotic Ecosystems.” Journal of the North American Benthological Society 8:2–8.
Schlosser, I. J. 1991. “Stream Fish Ecology: A Landscape Perspective.” BioScience 41:704–12.
Townsend, C. R., and A. G. Hildrew. 1994. “Species Traits in Relation to a Habitat Templet for River Systems.” Freshwater Biology 31:265–75.
Stanley, E. H., S. G. Fisher, and N. B. Grimm. 1997. “Ecosystem Expansion and Contraction in Streams.” BioScience 47:427–35.
Lake, P. S. 2000. “Disturbance, Patchiness, and Diversity in Streams.” Journal of the North American Benthological Society 19:573–92.
Meyer, J. L., and J. B. Wallace. 2001. “Lost Linkages and Lotic Ecology: Rediscovering Small Streams.” In Ecology: Achievement and Challenge, edited by M. C. Press, N. J. Huntley, and S. Levin, 295–317. The 41st Symposium of the British Ecological Society. Orlando, FL: Blackwell Science.

4. Species Interactions and Community Structure
Angus R. McIntosh and Jonathan D. Tonkin
Waters, T. F. 1962. “Diurnal Periodicity in the Drift of Stream Invertebrates.” Ecology 43:316–20.
Williams, D. D., and H. B. N. Hynes. 1976. “The Recolonization Mechanisms of Stream Benthos.” Oikos 27:265–72.
Peckarsky, B. L. 1980. “Predator-Prey Interactions between Stoneflies and Mayflies: Behavioral Observations.” Ecology 61:932–43.
Lamberti, G. A., and V. H. Resh. 1983. “Stream Periphyton and Insect Herbivores: An Experimental Study of Grazing by a Caddisfly Population.” Ecology 64:1124–35.
McAuliffe, J. R. 1984. “Competition for Space, Disturbance, and the Structure of a Benthic Stream Community.” Ecology 65:894–908.
Townsend, C. R. 1989. “The Patch Dynamics Concept of Stream Community Ecology.” Journal of the North American Benthological Society 8:36–50.

5. Food Webs and Trophic Interactions
Alexander D. Huryn and Alan G. Hildrew
Minshall, G. W. 1967. “Role of Allochthonous Detritus in the Trophic Structure of a Woodland Springbrook Community.” Ecology 48:139–49.
Cummins, K. W., W. P. Coffman, and P. A. Roff. 1966. “Trophic Relationships in a Small Woodland Stream.” Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen 16:627–38.
Benke, A. C., and J. B. Wallace. 1980. “Trophic Basis of Production among Net-Spinning Caddisflies in a Southern Appalachian Stream.” Ecology 61:108–18.
Hildrew, A. G., C. R. Townsend, and A. Hasham. 1985. “The Predatory Chironomidae of an Iron-Rich Stream: Feeding Ecology and Food Web Structure.” Ecological Entomology 10:403–13.
Power, M. E., W. J. Matthews, and A. J. Stewart. 1985. “Grazing Minnows, Piscivorous Bass, and Stream Algae: Dynamics of a Strong Interaction.” Ecology 66:1448–56.
Winemiller, K. O. 1990. “Spatial and Temporal Variation in Tropical Fish Trophic Networks.” Ecological Monographs 60:331–36.
Huryn, A. D. 1998. “Ecosystem-Level Evidence for Top-Down and Bottom-Up Control of Production in a Grassland Stream System.” Oecologia 115:173–83.

6. Litter Decomposition: Shining a Light on Early Insights into a Key Ecosystem Process in Streams
Mark O. Gessner, Luz Boyero, and Jennifer L. Tank
Kaushik, N. K., and H. B. N. Hynes. 1971. “The Fate of the Dead Leaves That Fall into Streams.” Archiv für Hydrobiologie 68:465–515.
Petersen, R. C., and K. W. Cummins. 1974. “Leaf Processing in a Woodland Stream.” Freshwater Biology 4:343–68.
Gessner, M. O., and E. Chauvet. 1994. “Importance of Stream Microfungi in Controlling Breakdown Rates of Leaf Litter.” Ecology 75:1807–17.
Suberkropp, K., and E. Chauvet. 1995. “Regulation of Leaf Breakdown by Fungi in Streams: Influences of Water Chemistry.” Ecology 76:1433–45.
Wallace, J. B., J. R. Webster, and T. F. Cuffney. 1982. “Stream Detritus Dynamics: Regulation by Invertebrate Consumers.” Oecologia 53:197–200.
Irons, J. G. III, M. W. Oswood, R. J. Stout, and C. M. Pringle. 1994. “Latitudinal Patterns in Leaf Litter Breakdown: Is Temperature Really Important?” Freshwater Biology 32:401–11.

7. Stream Ecosystem Energetics
Robert O. Hall Jr. and Emily S. Bernhardt
Odum, H. T. 1956. “Primary Production in Flowing Waters.” Limnology and Oceanography 1:102–17.
Hall, C. A. S. 1972. “Migration and Metabolism in a Temperate Stream Ecosystem.” Ecology 53:585–604.
Fisher, S. G., and G. E. Likens. 1973. “Energy Flow in Bear Brook, New Hampshire: An Integrative Approach to Stream Ecosystem Metabolism.” Ecological Monographs 43:421–39.
Minshall, G. W. 1978. “Autotrophy in Stream Ecosystems.” BioScience 28:767–71.
Meyer, J. L., and R. T. Edwards. 1990. “Ecosystem Metabolism and Turnover of Organic Carbon along a Blackwater River Continuum.” Ecology 71:668–77.
Uehlinger, U. 2000. “Resistance and Resilience of Ecosystem Metabolism in a Flood-Prone River System.” Freshwater Biology 45:319–32.
Fellows, C. S., H. M. Valett, and C. N. Dahm. 2001. “Whole-Stream Metabolism in Two Montane Streams: Contribution of the Hyporheic Zone.” Limnology and Oceanography 46:523–31.

8. Nutrient Dynamics
Daniel von Schiller, Eugènia Martí, Marc Peipoch, and H. Maurice Valett
Meyer, J. L., and G. E. Likens. 1979. “Transport and Transformation of Phosphorus in a Forest Stream Ecosystem.” Ecology 60:1255–69.
Webster, J. R., and B. C. Patten. 1979. “Effects of Watershed Perturbation on Stream Potassium and Calcium Dynamics.” Ecological Monographs 49:51–72.
Newbold, J. D., J. W. Elwood, R. V. O’Neill, and W. Van Winkle. 1981. “Measuring Nutrient Spiralling in Streams.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 38:860–63.
Newbold, J. D., J. W. Elwood, R. V. O’Neill, and A. L. Sheldon. 1983. “Phosphorus Dynamics in a Woodland Stream Ecosystem: A Study of Nutrient Spiralling.” Ecology 64:1249–65.
Grimm, N. B. 1987. “Nitrogen Dynamics during Succession in a Desert Stream.” Ecology 68:1157–70.
Triska, F. J., V. C. Kennedy, R. J. Avanzino, G. W. Zellweger, and K. E. Bencala. 1989a. “Retention and Transport of Nutrients in a Third‐Order Stream: Channel Processes.” Ecology 70:1877–92.
Triska, F. J., V. C. Kennedy, R. J. Avanzino, G. W. Zellweger, and K. E. Bencala. 1989b. “Retention and Transport of Nutrients in a Third‐Order Stream in Northwestern California: Hyporheic Processes.” Ecology 70:1893–905.
Peterson, B. J., W. M. Wollheim, P. J. Mulholland, J. R. Webster, J. L. Meyer, J. L. Tank, E. Martí, W. B. Bowden, H. M. Valett, A. E. Hershey, W. H. McDowell, W. K. Dodds, S. K. Hamilton, S. Gregory, and D. D. Morrall. 2001. “Control of Nitrogen Export from Watersheds by Headwater Streams.” Science 292:86–90.

9. Reciprocal Stream-Land Interactions
Colden V. Baxter, Amanda Subalusky, and Hiromi Uno
Sedell, J. R., and J. L. Froggatt. 1984. “Importance of Streamside Forests to Large Rivers: The Isolation of the Willamette River, Oregon, USA, from Its Floodplain by Snagging and Streamside Forest Removal.” Internationale Vereinigung für theoretische und angewandte Limnologie: Verhandlungen 22:1828–34.
Naiman, R. J., J. M. Melillo, and J. E. Hobbie. 1986. “Ecosystem Alteration of Boreal Forest Streams by Beaver (Castor canadensis).” Ecology 67:1254–69.
Junk, W. J., P. B. Bayley, and R. E. Sparks. 1989. “The Flood Pulse Concept in River-Floodplain Systems.” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Special Publication 106:110–27.
Gregory, S. V., F. J. Swanson, W. A. McKee, and K. W. Cummins. 1991. “An Ecosystem Perspective of Riparian Zones.” BioScience 41:540–51.
Willson, M. F., S. M. Gende, and B. H. Marston. 1998. “Fishes and the Forest.” BioScience 48:455–62.
Tockner, K., F. Malard, and J. V. Ward. 2000. “An Extension of the Flood Pulse Concept.” Hydrological Processes 14:2861–83.
Gurnell, A. M., G. E. Petts, D. M. Hannah, B. P. Smith, P. J. Edwards, J. Kollmann, J. V. Ward, and K. Tockner. 2001. “Riparian Vegetation and Island Formation along the Gravel‐Bed Fiume Tagliamento, Italy.” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 26:31–62.
Nakano, S., and M. Murakami. 2001. “Reciprocal Subsidies: Dynamic Interdependence between Terrestrial and Aquatic Food Webs.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98:166–70.

10. The Ecology of Place
Barbara L. Peckarsky and Mary E. Power
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest: Bernhardt, E. S., G. E. Likens, R. O. Hall Jr., D. C. Buso, S. G. Fisher, T. M. Burton, J. L. Meyer, W. H. McDowell, M. S. Mayer, W. B. Bowden, S. E. G. Findlay, K. H. Macneale, R. S. Stelzer, and W. H. Lowe. 2005. “Can’t See the Forest for the Stream? The Capacity of In-Stream Processing to Modify Terrestrial Nitrogen Exports.” BioScience 55:219–30.
Sycamore Creek: Fisher, S. G., N. B. Grimm, E. Martí, R. M. Holmes, and J. B. Jones Jr. 1998. “Material Spiraling in Stream Corridors: A Telescoping Ecosystem Model.” Ecosystems 1:19–34.
Angelo Coast Range Reserve: Power, M. E., M. S. Parker, and W. E. Dietrich. 2008. “Seasonal Reassembly of a River Food Web: Floods, Droughts, and Impacts of Fish.” Ecological Monographs 78:263–82.
Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory: Wallace, J. B., S. L. Eggert, J. L. Meyer, and J. R. Webster. 2015. “Stream Invertebrate Productivity Linked to Forest Subsidies: 37 Stream‐Years of Reference and Experimental Data.” Ecology 96:1213–28.
Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory: Peckarsky, B. L., A. C. Encalada, and A. R. McIntosh. 2011. “Why Do Vulnerable Mayflies Thrive in Trout Streams?” American Entomologist 57:152–64.

Epilogue

Acknowledgments
Literature Cited
List of Contributors
Index