The Complete Vegetarian: The Essential Guide to Good Health
edited by Peggy Carlson contributions by Michael A. Klaper, Erin L. Kraker, Valerie Kurtzhalts, D. Ennette Larson-Meyer, Reed Mangels, Carol M. Meerschaert, Virginia Messina, Mary Helen NIemeyer, Carl V. Phillips, Sudha Raj, John Anderson, Cheryl Sullivan, Dina Aronson, Peggy Carlson, James Craner, Brenda Davis, Simon K. Emms, Jeanene Fogli and Suzanne Havala Hobbs
University of Illinois Press, 2007 Paper: 978-0-252-07506-3 | Cloth: 978-0-252-03251-6 Library of Congress Classification TX392.C69 2009 Dewey Decimal Classification 641.5636
ABOUT THIS BOOK | AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY | TOC
ABOUT THIS BOOK
Citing health concerns as the number one reason why people adopt a vegetarian diet, this collection makes important scientific connections between good health and vegetarianism. The Complete Vegetarian examines the diet’s impact on chronic diseases and serves as a nutritional guide and meal-planning resource. Leading vegetarian nutritionists and medical doctors devote entire chapters to nutritional aspects that include fats, protein, and fiber; to diseases such as diabetes, cancer, heart disease, and high blood pressure; and to vegetarian meal planning, including specialized diets for children, pregnant women, and athletes.
The contributors' cutting-edge research finds that it is not only an absence of meat that accounts for the health effects of a vegetarian diet; other contributing factors include less saturated fat and more fiber, antioxidants, and unsaturated fats than other diets. The Complete Vegetarian promises to be an essential resource for health professionals and the growing number of people who have adopted or are thinking about adopting a vegetarian lifestyle.
Contributors include John J. B. Anderson, Dina Aronson, Peggy Carlson, James Craner, Brenda Davis, Simon K. Emms, Jeanene Fogli, Suzanne Havala Hobbs, Michael A. Klaper, Erin L. Kraker, Valerie Kurtzhalts, D. Enette Larson-Meyer, Reed Mangels, Carol M. Meerschaert, Virginia Messina, Mary Helen Niemeyer, Carl V. Phillips, Sudha Raj, and Cheryl Sullivan.
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY Peggy Carlson, MD, is an emergency medicine physician with a background in occupational medicine. She lives in Fairfax, Virginia.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
1. Introduction
Peggy Carlson
Vegetarians
History of Vegetarian Diets
Diets Around the World
History of the ?Western? or ?Affluent? Diet
History of Scientific Research into Diet-Related Diseases
Conclusion
2. Protein
Ginny Messina
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Protein Quality
Digestibility
Amino Acid Patterns
Plant Proteins and Nitrogen Balance
Protein Complementarity
Protein Needs of Vegetarians
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
3. Fats
Brenda Davis
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Defining Optimal Quantity of Fat
Very-Low-Fat Vegetarian Diets
Mediterranean-Style Diets
Making Sense of the Dichotomy
Achieving Recommended Essential Fatty Acid Intakes
Essential Fatty Acid Conversion
EFA Intake and Status of Vegetarians
Recommended Intakes for EFA
Achieving Optimal EFA Intake and Status in Vegetarians
Practical Aspects
Ensuring Highest-Quality Fat Sources
Whole Foods as the Optimal Source of Dietary Fat
Practical Guidelines for Optimal Health: Fats in the Vegetarian
Diet
Total Dietary Fat
Intake of Saturated Fat and Trans Fatty Acids
Saturated Fat
Trans Fatty Acids
Intake of Essential Fatty Acids
Aim for a Minimum of 1.5% Omega-3 Fatty Acids (2%
Omega-3 Fatty Acids during Pregnancy and Lactation)
Aim for an Omega-6:Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio of
Approximately 2:1?4:1
Consider a Direct Source of DHA in Your Diet
Quality of Dietary Fats
Whole Foods Should Be the Primary Source of Dietary Fat
Select Fats and Oils Wisely
Store Fats and Oils with Care
Do Not Expose Highly Unsaturated Oils to Excessive or
Prolonged Heating
Conclusion
4. Fiber
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Facts about Fiber
Definition of Fiber
Fiber Content of Foods
Fiber Intake
Physiological Effects of Fiber
Health Effects of Fiber
Constipation
Hemorrhoids
Cholesterol Levels and Coronary Artery Disease
Diverticular Disease
Cancer
Appendicitis
High Blood Pressure
Diabetes
Obesity
Other Gastrointestinal Disorders
Side Effects of Increased Fiber Intake
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
5. Iron
Dina Aronson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Functions of Iron in the Body
Iron in Food
Metabolism and Absorption of Iron
Overcoming Iron Absorption Inhibitors
Vitamin C Enhances Absorption
Mineral Interactions
The World?s Primary Nutrient Deficiency
Iron Requirements
Iron Throughout the Lifespan
Children
Men
Women
Seniors
Iron Toxicity
Iron in the Vegetarian Diet
Iron Status among Vegetarians
Hemochromatosis
Iron and Its Relationship to Disease
Heart Disease
Cancer
Insulin Resistance and Diabetes
Bone Health
Parkinson?s Disease
Practical Aspects
Measurements of Iron Status
Iron Supplementation
Maximizing Iron Status in Vegetarians
Conclusion?Vegetarians: At Risk, or Having an Edge?
6. Calcium and Vitamin D
Suzanne Havala Hobbs
John J. B. Anderson
Introduction
Summary of Scientific Literature
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
7. Vitamin B12
Michael A. Klaper
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Why the Body Needs Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 Sources
Bye, Bye, B12
Blood Testing for Vitamin B12 Levels
Practical Aspects
Strategies for Assuring Cobalamin Sufficiency
The Supplement Question
Conclusion
8. Zinc
Ginny Messina
Reed Mangels
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Functions of Zinc
Zinc Bioavailability and Recommendations
Vegetarian Zinc Status
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
9. Other Vitamins and Minerals
Reed Mangels
Introduction
Summary of Scientific Literature
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate
Biotin
Pantothenic Acid
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Iodine
Selenium
Copper
Chromium
Molybdenum
Practical Aspects
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate
Biotin
Pantothenic Acid
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Iodine
Selenium
Copper
Chromium
Molybdenum
Conclusion
10. Heart Disease
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Vegetarianism and Risk of Coronary Artery Disease
Factors in a Vegetarian Diet That Protect against Coronary
Artery Disease
Fats and Cholesterol
Fiber
Antioxidants
Soy Products
Blood Clotting
Hypertension
Homocysteine
Iron
Obesity
Phytochemicals
Fruits and Vegetables
Vegetarianism and Treatment of Coronary Artery Disease
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
11. Cancer
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature: Cancer Rates among
Vegetarians
Studies of Vegetarian Groups and the Risk of Cancer
Studies of Seventh-Day Adventists and the Risk of Cancer
California Seventh-Day Adventist Study
Studies of Seventh-Day Adventists Other than the
California Seventh-Day Adventist Study
Study of Individuals with Lifestyles Similar to Seventh-Day
Adventists
Conclusions
The Relationship Between Diet and Cancer
Introduction
What Causes Cancer
Dietary Factors That May Affect Cancer Risk
Fruits and Vegetables
Vitamins
Antioxidants
Phytochemicals
Phytoestrogens
Fiber
Fats
Meat
Cooking and Food Preservation Methods
Soy Products
Obesity
Common Cancers and Related Dietary Factors
Lung Cancer
Colon Cancer
Breast Cancer
Prostate Cancer
The Relationship Between Vegetarian Diets and Dietary
Factors That May Affect Cancer Risk
Fruits and Vegetables
Vitamins
Antioxidants
Phytochemicals
Fiber
Fats
Meat
Cooking and Food Preservation Method
Soy Products
Common Cancers and Vegetarian Diets
Lung Cancer
Colon Cancer
Breast Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
12. Hypertension
James Craner
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Etiology and Epidemiology of Hypertension
Etiology of Hypertension
Diseases Associated with Hypertension
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident, CVA)
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
Chronic Renal Failure (CRF)
Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD)
All-Cause Mortality
Co-Morbid Conditions and Contributory Factors
Current Treatment Approaches
Hypertension and Vegetarian Diets
Prevalence of Hypertension among Vegetarians
Vegetarian Diets for Treatment of Hypertension
Comparison of Vegetarian Diets vs. Nonvegetarian Diets
for Treatment of Hypertension
Mechanism of Protective/Therapeutic Effect of Vegetarian
Diet
Weight Loss
Minerals: Sodium (Salt), Potassium, Calcium
Vitamins and Antioxidants
Fiber
Fruits and Vegetables
Flavonoids
Dietary Protein, Cholesterol, and Fat
Conclusions
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
13. Stroke
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Background Information
Types of Strokes
Risk Factors for Stroke
Studies of Different Diets and Stroke
Limitations of Studies of Diet and Stroke
Studies of Vegetarian Diets and Stroke
Studies of Seventh-Day Adventists and Stroke
Studies of Individual Dietary Factors and Stroke
Sodium and Potassium
Homocysteine and Folate
Antioxidants
Fiber
Fruit and Vegetable Consumption
Studies of Meat Consumption and Stroke
Putting It All Together with Vegetarian Diets
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
14. Obesity and a Vegetarian Diet
Suha Raj
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
General Introduction on Obesity
Vegetarians and Obesity
Calorie Intake
Higher Fiber Intake
Higher Carbohydrate Intake
Lower Protein Intakes and Specific Amino Acid Profiles
Type of Fat
Other Issues
Dieting with a Vegetarian Diet
Practical Aspects
Dietary Changes
Lifestyle Changes
Conclusion
15. Diabetes and Vegetarian Diets
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Dietary Risk Factors for Diabetes
The Occurrence of Diabetes among Vegetarians versus
Nonvegetarians
Dietary Fat, Fiber, Carbohydrate, and Protein in Diets for
Diabetics
General Considerations
Dietary Fa
Fiber
Carbohydrates
Protein
Phytoestrogens
High-Carbohydrate, Low-Fat, High-Fiber Diets
Lower-Carbohydrate, Higher-Monounsaturated-Fat Diets
Current Diet Recommendations for Diabetics
Factors in a Vegetarian Diet That Are Beneficial to
Diabetics
The Effect of a Vegetarian Diet on Diabetes Control
Practical Aspects: How to Plan a Vegetarian Diet for Diabetics
Conclusion
16. Osteoporosis
John J. B. Anderson
Suzanne Havala Hobbs
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Studies of Bone Density in Vegetarians and Vegans
Dietary Variables and Bone
Protein
Calcium and Vitamin D
Ratio of Calcium to Phosphorus in the Diet
Other Minerals
Soy Isoflavones and Other Phytoestrogens
Vitamin K
Vitamin C
Vitamin B12
Dietary Fats
Lifestyle Factors That Influence Vegetarian Diets
Summary
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
17. Gallbladder Disease, Diverticulitis, Appendicitis, Kidney
Stones, and Kidney Failure
Valerie Kurtzhalts
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Gallbladder Disease
Diverticular Disease and Appendicitis
Diverticular Disease
Appendicitis
Kidney Stones
Kidney Failure (Chronic Renal Failure)
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
18. Vegetarian Diets and Children
Jeanene Fogli
Carol M. Meerschaert
19. Pregnancy and Lactation
Reed Mangels
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Pregnancy
Weight Gain
Protein
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Iron
Calcium and Vitamin D
Vitamin B12
Zinc
Vegetarian Diets and Complications of Pregnancy
Vegetarian Nutrition during Lactation
Milk Composition
Practical Aspects
Weight Gain in Pregnancy
Protein
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Iron
Calcium and Vitamin D
Vitamin B12
Nausea and Vomiting
Diet Guides
Conclusion
20. Optimal Nutrition for Active Vegetarians and Vegetarian
Athletes
D. Enette Larson-Meyer
Mary Helen Niemeyer
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Overview of Energy Utilization during Exercise
Requirements for Energy and Energy-Generating Nutrients
Energy
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Requirements for Vitamins and Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Zinc
Iodine
B Vitamins
Nutritional Supplements
Protein
Creatine
Carnitine
Caffeine
Nutrition Before, During, and After Exercise
Before Exercise
During Exercise
After Exercise
Special Concerns for the Vegetarian Athlete Requiring Weight
Reduction
Special Concerns for the Female Vegetarian Athlete
Potential Benefits of Vegetarian Diet
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
21. Environmental and Food Safety Aspects of Vegetarian Diets
Carl V. Phillips
Simon K. Emms
Erin L. Kraker
Introduction
Types of Animal Food Production
A Variety of Environmental Impacts
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Impacts of Intensive Farming Operations
Land, Water, and Energy Use
Aquaculture as Intensive Farming
Pollution from Effluent
Infectious Diseases
Impacts of Grazing
Impacts of Harvesting
Fishing
Other Harvesting
Practical Aspects
Conclusions
22. Planning Nutritious Vegetarian Diets
Cheryl Sullivan
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Food Guides
Food Guide for North American Vegetarians
New York Medical College Vegetarian Pyramid
The New Becoming Vegetarian Food Guide
The Vegetarian Way Food Guide
The Traditional Healthy Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
Other Vegetarian Food Guides
Supplements
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
23. Conclusion: Summary of Protective Factors
Virginia Messina
Peggy Carlson
Factors in Vegetarian Diets That Are Protective
Fiber
Antioxidants
Phytochemicals
Unsaturated Fats (Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fats)
Potassium
Fruits and Vegetables
Vegetarian Diets May Be More Healthful Due to Lower Intakes of
These Factors
Saturated Fat
Cholesterol
Meat
Animal Protein
Heme Iron
Obesity
Conclusion
Index
The Complete Vegetarian: The Essential Guide to Good Health
edited by Peggy Carlson contributions by Michael A. Klaper, Erin L. Kraker, Valerie Kurtzhalts, D. Ennette Larson-Meyer, Reed Mangels, Carol M. Meerschaert, Virginia Messina, Mary Helen NIemeyer, Carl V. Phillips, Sudha Raj, John Anderson, Cheryl Sullivan, Dina Aronson, Peggy Carlson, James Craner, Brenda Davis, Simon K. Emms, Jeanene Fogli and Suzanne Havala Hobbs
University of Illinois Press, 2007 Paper: 978-0-252-07506-3 Cloth: 978-0-252-03251-6
Citing health concerns as the number one reason why people adopt a vegetarian diet, this collection makes important scientific connections between good health and vegetarianism. The Complete Vegetarian examines the diet’s impact on chronic diseases and serves as a nutritional guide and meal-planning resource. Leading vegetarian nutritionists and medical doctors devote entire chapters to nutritional aspects that include fats, protein, and fiber; to diseases such as diabetes, cancer, heart disease, and high blood pressure; and to vegetarian meal planning, including specialized diets for children, pregnant women, and athletes.
The contributors' cutting-edge research finds that it is not only an absence of meat that accounts for the health effects of a vegetarian diet; other contributing factors include less saturated fat and more fiber, antioxidants, and unsaturated fats than other diets. The Complete Vegetarian promises to be an essential resource for health professionals and the growing number of people who have adopted or are thinking about adopting a vegetarian lifestyle.
Contributors include John J. B. Anderson, Dina Aronson, Peggy Carlson, James Craner, Brenda Davis, Simon K. Emms, Jeanene Fogli, Suzanne Havala Hobbs, Michael A. Klaper, Erin L. Kraker, Valerie Kurtzhalts, D. Enette Larson-Meyer, Reed Mangels, Carol M. Meerschaert, Virginia Messina, Mary Helen Niemeyer, Carl V. Phillips, Sudha Raj, and Cheryl Sullivan.
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY Peggy Carlson, MD, is an emergency medicine physician with a background in occupational medicine. She lives in Fairfax, Virginia.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
1. Introduction
Peggy Carlson
Vegetarians
History of Vegetarian Diets
Diets Around the World
History of the ?Western? or ?Affluent? Diet
History of Scientific Research into Diet-Related Diseases
Conclusion
2. Protein
Ginny Messina
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Protein Quality
Digestibility
Amino Acid Patterns
Plant Proteins and Nitrogen Balance
Protein Complementarity
Protein Needs of Vegetarians
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
3. Fats
Brenda Davis
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Defining Optimal Quantity of Fat
Very-Low-Fat Vegetarian Diets
Mediterranean-Style Diets
Making Sense of the Dichotomy
Achieving Recommended Essential Fatty Acid Intakes
Essential Fatty Acid Conversion
EFA Intake and Status of Vegetarians
Recommended Intakes for EFA
Achieving Optimal EFA Intake and Status in Vegetarians
Practical Aspects
Ensuring Highest-Quality Fat Sources
Whole Foods as the Optimal Source of Dietary Fat
Practical Guidelines for Optimal Health: Fats in the Vegetarian
Diet
Total Dietary Fat
Intake of Saturated Fat and Trans Fatty Acids
Saturated Fat
Trans Fatty Acids
Intake of Essential Fatty Acids
Aim for a Minimum of 1.5% Omega-3 Fatty Acids (2%
Omega-3 Fatty Acids during Pregnancy and Lactation)
Aim for an Omega-6:Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio of
Approximately 2:1?4:1
Consider a Direct Source of DHA in Your Diet
Quality of Dietary Fats
Whole Foods Should Be the Primary Source of Dietary Fat
Select Fats and Oils Wisely
Store Fats and Oils with Care
Do Not Expose Highly Unsaturated Oils to Excessive or
Prolonged Heating
Conclusion
4. Fiber
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Facts about Fiber
Definition of Fiber
Fiber Content of Foods
Fiber Intake
Physiological Effects of Fiber
Health Effects of Fiber
Constipation
Hemorrhoids
Cholesterol Levels and Coronary Artery Disease
Diverticular Disease
Cancer
Appendicitis
High Blood Pressure
Diabetes
Obesity
Other Gastrointestinal Disorders
Side Effects of Increased Fiber Intake
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
5. Iron
Dina Aronson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Functions of Iron in the Body
Iron in Food
Metabolism and Absorption of Iron
Overcoming Iron Absorption Inhibitors
Vitamin C Enhances Absorption
Mineral Interactions
The World?s Primary Nutrient Deficiency
Iron Requirements
Iron Throughout the Lifespan
Children
Men
Women
Seniors
Iron Toxicity
Iron in the Vegetarian Diet
Iron Status among Vegetarians
Hemochromatosis
Iron and Its Relationship to Disease
Heart Disease
Cancer
Insulin Resistance and Diabetes
Bone Health
Parkinson?s Disease
Practical Aspects
Measurements of Iron Status
Iron Supplementation
Maximizing Iron Status in Vegetarians
Conclusion?Vegetarians: At Risk, or Having an Edge?
6. Calcium and Vitamin D
Suzanne Havala Hobbs
John J. B. Anderson
Introduction
Summary of Scientific Literature
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
7. Vitamin B12
Michael A. Klaper
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Why the Body Needs Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 Sources
Bye, Bye, B12
Blood Testing for Vitamin B12 Levels
Practical Aspects
Strategies for Assuring Cobalamin Sufficiency
The Supplement Question
Conclusion
8. Zinc
Ginny Messina
Reed Mangels
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Functions of Zinc
Zinc Bioavailability and Recommendations
Vegetarian Zinc Status
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
9. Other Vitamins and Minerals
Reed Mangels
Introduction
Summary of Scientific Literature
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate
Biotin
Pantothenic Acid
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Iodine
Selenium
Copper
Chromium
Molybdenum
Practical Aspects
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Niacin
Vitamin B6
Folate
Biotin
Pantothenic Acid
Vitamin C
Vitamin A
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Iodine
Selenium
Copper
Chromium
Molybdenum
Conclusion
10. Heart Disease
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Vegetarianism and Risk of Coronary Artery Disease
Factors in a Vegetarian Diet That Protect against Coronary
Artery Disease
Fats and Cholesterol
Fiber
Antioxidants
Soy Products
Blood Clotting
Hypertension
Homocysteine
Iron
Obesity
Phytochemicals
Fruits and Vegetables
Vegetarianism and Treatment of Coronary Artery Disease
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
11. Cancer
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature: Cancer Rates among
Vegetarians
Studies of Vegetarian Groups and the Risk of Cancer
Studies of Seventh-Day Adventists and the Risk of Cancer
California Seventh-Day Adventist Study
Studies of Seventh-Day Adventists Other than the
California Seventh-Day Adventist Study
Study of Individuals with Lifestyles Similar to Seventh-Day
Adventists
Conclusions
The Relationship Between Diet and Cancer
Introduction
What Causes Cancer
Dietary Factors That May Affect Cancer Risk
Fruits and Vegetables
Vitamins
Antioxidants
Phytochemicals
Phytoestrogens
Fiber
Fats
Meat
Cooking and Food Preservation Methods
Soy Products
Obesity
Common Cancers and Related Dietary Factors
Lung Cancer
Colon Cancer
Breast Cancer
Prostate Cancer
The Relationship Between Vegetarian Diets and Dietary
Factors That May Affect Cancer Risk
Fruits and Vegetables
Vitamins
Antioxidants
Phytochemicals
Fiber
Fats
Meat
Cooking and Food Preservation Method
Soy Products
Common Cancers and Vegetarian Diets
Lung Cancer
Colon Cancer
Breast Cancer
Prostate Cancer
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
12. Hypertension
James Craner
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Etiology and Epidemiology of Hypertension
Etiology of Hypertension
Diseases Associated with Hypertension
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)
Stroke (Cerebrovascular Accident, CVA)
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)
Chronic Renal Failure (CRF)
Peripheral Vascular Disease (PVD)
All-Cause Mortality
Co-Morbid Conditions and Contributory Factors
Current Treatment Approaches
Hypertension and Vegetarian Diets
Prevalence of Hypertension among Vegetarians
Vegetarian Diets for Treatment of Hypertension
Comparison of Vegetarian Diets vs. Nonvegetarian Diets
for Treatment of Hypertension
Mechanism of Protective/Therapeutic Effect of Vegetarian
Diet
Weight Loss
Minerals: Sodium (Salt), Potassium, Calcium
Vitamins and Antioxidants
Fiber
Fruits and Vegetables
Flavonoids
Dietary Protein, Cholesterol, and Fat
Conclusions
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
13. Stroke
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Background Information
Types of Strokes
Risk Factors for Stroke
Studies of Different Diets and Stroke
Limitations of Studies of Diet and Stroke
Studies of Vegetarian Diets and Stroke
Studies of Seventh-Day Adventists and Stroke
Studies of Individual Dietary Factors and Stroke
Sodium and Potassium
Homocysteine and Folate
Antioxidants
Fiber
Fruit and Vegetable Consumption
Studies of Meat Consumption and Stroke
Putting It All Together with Vegetarian Diets
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
14. Obesity and a Vegetarian Diet
Suha Raj
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
General Introduction on Obesity
Vegetarians and Obesity
Calorie Intake
Higher Fiber Intake
Higher Carbohydrate Intake
Lower Protein Intakes and Specific Amino Acid Profiles
Type of Fat
Other Issues
Dieting with a Vegetarian Diet
Practical Aspects
Dietary Changes
Lifestyle Changes
Conclusion
15. Diabetes and Vegetarian Diets
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Dietary Risk Factors for Diabetes
The Occurrence of Diabetes among Vegetarians versus
Nonvegetarians
Dietary Fat, Fiber, Carbohydrate, and Protein in Diets for
Diabetics
General Considerations
Dietary Fa
Fiber
Carbohydrates
Protein
Phytoestrogens
High-Carbohydrate, Low-Fat, High-Fiber Diets
Lower-Carbohydrate, Higher-Monounsaturated-Fat Diets
Current Diet Recommendations for Diabetics
Factors in a Vegetarian Diet That Are Beneficial to
Diabetics
The Effect of a Vegetarian Diet on Diabetes Control
Practical Aspects: How to Plan a Vegetarian Diet for Diabetics
Conclusion
16. Osteoporosis
John J. B. Anderson
Suzanne Havala Hobbs
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Studies of Bone Density in Vegetarians and Vegans
Dietary Variables and Bone
Protein
Calcium and Vitamin D
Ratio of Calcium to Phosphorus in the Diet
Other Minerals
Soy Isoflavones and Other Phytoestrogens
Vitamin K
Vitamin C
Vitamin B12
Dietary Fats
Lifestyle Factors That Influence Vegetarian Diets
Summary
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
17. Gallbladder Disease, Diverticulitis, Appendicitis, Kidney
Stones, and Kidney Failure
Valerie Kurtzhalts
Peggy Carlson
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Gallbladder Disease
Diverticular Disease and Appendicitis
Diverticular Disease
Appendicitis
Kidney Stones
Kidney Failure (Chronic Renal Failure)
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
18. Vegetarian Diets and Children
Jeanene Fogli
Carol M. Meerschaert
19. Pregnancy and Lactation
Reed Mangels
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Pregnancy
Weight Gain
Protein
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Iron
Calcium and Vitamin D
Vitamin B12
Zinc
Vegetarian Diets and Complications of Pregnancy
Vegetarian Nutrition during Lactation
Milk Composition
Practical Aspects
Weight Gain in Pregnancy
Protein
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Iron
Calcium and Vitamin D
Vitamin B12
Nausea and Vomiting
Diet Guides
Conclusion
20. Optimal Nutrition for Active Vegetarians and Vegetarian
Athletes
D. Enette Larson-Meyer
Mary Helen Niemeyer
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Overview of Energy Utilization during Exercise
Requirements for Energy and Energy-Generating Nutrients
Energy
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Requirements for Vitamins and Minerals
Calcium
Iron
Zinc
Iodine
B Vitamins
Nutritional Supplements
Protein
Creatine
Carnitine
Caffeine
Nutrition Before, During, and After Exercise
Before Exercise
During Exercise
After Exercise
Special Concerns for the Vegetarian Athlete Requiring Weight
Reduction
Special Concerns for the Female Vegetarian Athlete
Potential Benefits of Vegetarian Diet
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
21. Environmental and Food Safety Aspects of Vegetarian Diets
Carl V. Phillips
Simon K. Emms
Erin L. Kraker
Introduction
Types of Animal Food Production
A Variety of Environmental Impacts
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Impacts of Intensive Farming Operations
Land, Water, and Energy Use
Aquaculture as Intensive Farming
Pollution from Effluent
Infectious Diseases
Impacts of Grazing
Impacts of Harvesting
Fishing
Other Harvesting
Practical Aspects
Conclusions
22. Planning Nutritious Vegetarian Diets
Cheryl Sullivan
Introduction
Summary of the Scientific Literature
Food Guides
Food Guide for North American Vegetarians
New York Medical College Vegetarian Pyramid
The New Becoming Vegetarian Food Guide
The Vegetarian Way Food Guide
The Traditional Healthy Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
Other Vegetarian Food Guides
Supplements
Practical Aspects
Conclusion
23. Conclusion: Summary of Protective Factors
Virginia Messina
Peggy Carlson
Factors in Vegetarian Diets That Are Protective
Fiber
Antioxidants
Phytochemicals
Unsaturated Fats (Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fats)
Potassium
Fruits and Vegetables
Vegetarian Diets May Be More Healthful Due to Lower Intakes of
These Factors
Saturated Fat
Cholesterol
Meat
Animal Protein
Heme Iron
Obesity
Conclusion
Index
