This highly successful manual has served for nearly three decades as the definitive guide to the safe use of radioactive materials. Completely revised and updated, the fourth edition presents a new dimension by adding coverage of nonionizing radiation, and is thus concerned with the entire field of radiation protection.

The author takes the novel approach of introducing the whole range of energies possessed by particles and electromagnetic waves at the beginning of the text, thus integrating coverage of ionizing and nonionizing radiation rather than considering them as two separate disciplines. He goes on to cover the entire spectrum of radiation sources, including radionuclides, x-ray machines, accelerators, nuclear reactors, power lines, microwave towers, and cellular phones.

With its expanded coverage, including a broader focus on public health issues, this new volume will serve as an important training and reference resource, not only for research scientists, physicians, and engineers, but for regulatory officials, attorneys, engineers, and environmental health and safety professionals. The breadth of citations alone makes this resource invaluable.

PART ONE      I Energy-The Unifying Concept in Radiation Protectio
Radiation's Dual Identity 9
1.1   From Energy to Radiation Dose 10
Energy Relationships in the Hydrogen Atom 11
Energy Levels in Atoms with Higher Z 13
Energy Levels in Molecules 14
Energies of Motion Associated with Temperature 14
Bonding Energies 15
Energy from Mass-The Ultimate Energy Source 16
Some Interesting Energy Values 17

PART TWO I Principles of Protection against Ionizing Particles
The Approach 18
Energy and Injury 19
Charged and Uncharged Ionizing Particles 20
Energy Transfer by Charged Particles 20




5 The Stopping Power Equation 22
6 Beta Particles-A Major Class of Charged Ionizing Particles 23
Properties of Some Common Beta-Emitting Radionuclides 25
Protection from External Beta Particle Sources-Time, Distance,
and Shielding 31
7 Characteristics of Uncharged Ionizing Particles 33
8 Gamma Rays-A Major Class of Uncharged Ionizing Particles 33
Energies and Penetration of Gamma Rays from Some Gamma-Emitting
Radionuclides 35
Positron-Emitting Radionuclides and Annihilation Radiation 38
The Three Major Mechanisms Affecting the Penetration
of Gamma Radiation 39
Attenuation Coefficients of Gamma Photons in Different Materials 44
Calculation of Attenuation of Gamma Photons by the Half-Value
Layer Method 47
Protection from Gamma Sources-Time, Distance, Shielding 50
9 Heavy Charged Ionizing Particles 51
The Alpha Particle-A Heavy Particle with High Linear Energy
Transfer and High Capacity for Producing Damage 51
The Proton-Another Heavy Charged Particle with High Linear
Energy Transfer 53
10 The Neutron-A Second Important Uncharged Ionizing Particle 54
Sources of Neutrons 54
Neutron Collisions 56
Attenuation of Neutrons 57
11 The Absorbed Dose-A Measure of Energy Imparted to a Medium     60
The Pattern of the Imparted Energy in a Medium 60
Definition of Absorbed Dose 62
The Gray-The SI Unit for Absorbed Dose 62
12 The Equivalent Dose-A Common Scale for Doses to Organs and
Tissues from Different Radiation Types and Energies 63
The Radiation Weighting Factor and the Quality Factor-Measures of
the Relative Hazard of Energy Transfer by Different Particles 64
The Sievert-The Special Unit of Equivalent Dose 66
13 Tissue Weighting Factors and the Effective Dose-A Measure of Risk
and Severity of Consequences 67
14 The Roentgen-The Traditional Unit for Expressing
Radiation Exposure 71
15 The Significance of External Radiation Levels 72




16 Exposure from Internal Radiation Sources 77
The Activity-A Quantity for Describing the Amount
of Radioactivity 77
The Unit of Activity-The Becquerel 77
The Accumulating Dose from Radioactivity in the Body
and the Committed Dose 78
17 The Annual Limit on Intake-The Basic Quantity for the Control
of Internal Exposures 80
18 Limit for the Concentration of a Radionuclide in Air-
A Derived Limit 81
19 Levels of Radioactivity inside the Body-A Useful Benchmark
for Internal Exposure 82
20 Protection from Radioactive Contamination 84
21 Some Simple Calculations in Radiation Protection 85
Dose from Beta Particles 85
Exposure Rate and Dose Rate from Gamma Photons 89
Reduction of Dose Rate by Both Distance and Shielding 91
Correction for Radioactive Decay 92
Shielding of Large or Complex Sources 92
22 X Rays-Radiation Made by Machine 94
Production of X Rays 96
Diagnostic Radiology 98
X-Ray Attenuation in the Body 99
Effects of Photon Energy Distribution on Image Formation and
Absorbed Dose 101
A Description of an X-Ray Machine 105
Production of a Photograph of the X-Ray Image  111
Fluoroscopy 112
Mammography 116
Computed Tomography: Taking Cross Sections with X Rays  119
Technical Approaches for Minimizing the Doses Required to
Record an X Ray 121
Impact of the Digital Computer in Radiation Medicine 123
23 Dose Measurements in Diagnostic Radiology 124
24 Exposure Guides and Reference Levels in Diagnostic Radiology 127
25 Protection of the Patient in X-Ray Diagnosis 129
Principles 131
Policy of the International Commission on Radiological Protection 132
Studies in the United Kingdom 133




Radiography of the Spine in Scoliosis Patients-A Prime Candidate
for Dose Reduction 134
Screening for Specific Diseases 135
26 Radiation Levels in the Working Areas around X-Ray Machines 135
Shielding the X-Ray Beam 138
27 Dose Reduction in Nuclear Medicine 142
28 Exposure of the Embryo, Fetus, or Nursing Child 142
29 Protection of the Patient in Radiation Therapy 143
Treatment with External Radiation Beams 144
Brachytherapy 145
Therapeutic Use of Radiopharmaceuticals 146
30 Misadministrations in the Medical Use of Radiation and
Radioactive Material 146
31 Occupational Exposures Incurred in the Medical Use of Radiation 147
Studies of Occupational Exposures in the Conduct
of Specific Procedures 148
32 Comments for Users of X-Ray Diffraction Machines 152
33 Particle Accelerators-The Universal Radiation Source 155
History of Particle Accelerators 156
Interactions of High-Energy Particles 158
Shielding High-Energy Particles 160
Particle Accelerators in Radiation Therapy 161
34 Regulation of Radiation Sources and Uses 164
Regulatory Measures for Medical Radiation Programs 166

PART THREE : Radiation Dose Calculations                                         167
1 Dose from Beta-Emitting Radionuclides inside the Body 168
Calculating the Initial Dose Rate 169
Dose Calculations for a Decaying Radionuclide 169
Some Relationships Governing Radioactive Decay 170
Relationships Involving Both Radioactive Decay
and Biological Elimination 172
Absorbed Beta Dose over a Period of Time 174
2 A Closer Look at the Dose from Beta Particles 175
Beta Particle Point Source Dose-Rate Functions 175
Evaluation of Beta Particle Dose from the Fluence
and Stopping Power 176




3 Calculation of the Absorbed Dose from Gamma Emitters in the
Body 178
Dose Rate from a Point Source of Photons-The Specific Dose-Rate
Constant for Tissue 178
Evaluation of the Specific Dose-Rate Constant 179
Dose Rate from Distributed Gamma Sources 183
The Absorbed-Fraction Method-Dose within the Source Volume
Dose to Targets outside the Source Volume by the Absorbed-Fraction
Method 184
The Specific Absorbed Fraction-Sparing the Need to Divide
by the Target Mass 185
Use of the Equilibrium Dose Constant-Computer-Generated Sourc
Output Data 186
The S Factor-Doses from Cumulated Activity 188
4 Summary of Formulas 189
Radioactive Decay 189
Physical Decay and Biological Elimination 189
Dose from Nonpenetrating Radiation from Internal Emitters  189
Dose from Penetrating Radiation from Internal Emitters 190
Inverse Square Law 190
Dose Rates at a Distance from Gamma Sources 190
Attenuation of Radiation 191
Equivalent Dose 191
5 Dose Calculations for Specific Radionuclides 191
Hydrogen-3 (Tritium)  192
Iodine-131 and Iodine-125 197
Strontium-90 -> Yttrium-90 -> Zirconium-90  202
Xenon-133 and Krypton-85 205
Uranium-238 and Its Decay Products 213
Radon-222 and Its Decay Products 216
Plutonium-239 and Plutonium-240 221
6 Dose Rates from Small, Highly Radioactive Particles 224
Evaluation of the Dose from Beta Particles 225
Biological Effects of Hot Particles 225
Risk of Cancer from Hot Particles 227
Highly Radioactive Particles in Fallout 228
Recommendations of the NCRP on Limits of Exposure
to Hot Particles 228
NRC Enforcement Policy for Exposures to Hot Particles 229
7 The Radioactive Patient as a Source of Exposure 229




8 Radiation Doses in Nuclear Medicine 231
Dose to the Fetus from Uptake of Radionuclides from the Mother 235
9 Evaluation of Doses within the Body from X Rays 236
Patient Doses in Mammography 239
Evaluation of Doses in CT Examinations 240
10 Survey Results, Handbooks, and the Internet 245
Surveys of Doses in X-Ray Examinations 245
11 Producing an Optimum Radiation Field for Treating a Tumor 246

PART FOUR  :   Radiation Measurements                                            250
1 Radiation Counting with a Geiger-Mueller Counter 250
A G-M Counter Described 251
Adjusting the High Voltage on a G-M Counter and Obtaining
a Plateau 252
How a G-M Counter Can Lose Counts and Even
Become Paralyzed 252
How to Distinguish between Beta and Gamma Radiation
with a G-M Counter 254
How to Determine Source Strength of a Beta Emitter
with a G-M Counter 255
Factors Affecting Efficiency of Detection of Beta Particles 256
Correcting for Attenuation of Beta Particles by Determining
Absorption Curves 258
Counting Gamma Photons with a G-M Counter 259
Standardization of Radionuclides with G-M Counters 259
Interpreting Counts on a G-M Counter 262
2 Energy Measurements with a Scintillation Detector 263
Description of Scintillation Detectors and Photomultipliers 264
Pulse Counting with a Scintillation Counter and Scaler 264
Pulse-Height Distributions from Scintillation Detectors 266
Electronic Processing of Pulses Produced by Scintillation Detectors 270
3 Detectors for Special Counting Problems 279
Gas-Filled Proportional Counters 279
Semiconductor Detectors 282
4 Measuring Radiation Dose Rates 283
Measuring X and Gamma Dose Rates with Ionization-Type
Survey Meters 283
Use of Scintillation Detectors to Measure Dose Rates 286
Use of G-M Counters to Monitor Dose Rates 286
Routine Performance Checks of Survey Meters 287




Calibration of Survey Meters 288
Beta Dose-Rate Measurements 294
Neutron Monitoring 295
5 Measurirg Accumulated Doses over Extended Periods-Personnel
and Environmental Monitoring 296
Use of Biodosimetry in Reconstructing Radiation Exposures 300
6 Specifying Statistical Variations in Counting Results 302
Nature of Counting Distributions 303
Sample Average and Confidence Limits 304
Standard Deviation 305
The Normal Error Curve-A Good Fit for Count Distributions 306
Precision of a Single Radiation Measurement 308
The Effect of Background on the Precision
of Radiation Measurements 309
The Precision of the Ratio of Two Measurements 312
Testing the Distribution of a Series of Counts-
The Chi-Square Test 312
Measurements at the Limits of Sensitivity of Detectors 314
7 Comments on Making Accurate Measurements 320

PART FIVE    :   Practical Aspects of the Use of Radionuclides                      32
1 Obtaining Authorization to Use Radionuclides 323
Administration of Radioactive Material to Humans 327
Requirements for Obtaining Approval to Use New
Radioactive Drugs 328
Protection of the Patient in Nuclear Medicine 329
2 Training Required for Working with Radionuclides  332
Implementation of a Training Program 333
Radiation Safety within a Comprehensive Institutional Program
in Laboratory Safety 334
3 Responsibilities of Radionuclide Users 336
4 Standards for Protection against Radiation 337
5 Personnel Monitoring for External Radiation Exposure 338
Ambiguities in Using the Personnel Dosimeter Dose as a Surrogate
for Personnel Dose 339
6 Monitoring Personnel Subject to Intakes of Radioactive Material 339
7 NRC and ICRP Values for Annual Limits on Intake and Airborne
Radioactivity Concentration Limits 342
Air Monitoring for Environmental Radioactivity 349




8 Posting of Areas 349
9 Laboratory Facilities 350
10 Protective Clothing 353
11 Trays and Handling Tools 354
12 Special Handling Precautions for Radioiodine 354
12.1 Use of Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid-Blocking Agent 356
13 Hygiene 357
14 Trial Runs 357
15 Delivery of Radionuclides 357
16 Storage and Control of Radionucides 358
17 Storage of Wastes 359
18 Waste Disposal 359
Disposal of Gases to the Atmosphere 360
Disposal of Liquids to Unrestricted Areas 362
Disposal of Liquid Wastes to Sanitary Sewerage Systems 362
Solid Wastes 364
Disposal oh Site by Incineration and Other Methods 364
Government Regulation of the Disposal of Hazardous Wastes 365
Volume Reduction in Waste Disposal 367
The Designation of De Minimus Concentrations of Radioactivity 368
Natural Radioactivity as a Reference in the Control
of Environmental Releases 369
19 Use of Radioactive Materials in Animals 372
20 Transportation of Radionuclides 373
Transportation within the Institution 373
Mailing through the U.S. Postal Service 373
Shipment of "Limited Quantities" 376
Shipment of "Low-Specific-Activity" Materials 377
Shipment of Type-A Packages 377
Shipping Papers and Shipper's Certification 379
21 Contamination Control 380
Monitoring for Contamination 380
Decontamination of Equipment and Buildings-Limits
for Uncontrolled Release 381
22 Personnel Contamination and Decontamination 383
23 Leak Tests of Sealed Sources 383
24 Notification of Authorities in the Event of Radiation Incidents 385
25 Termination of Work with Radionuclides 385




APPENDIX A: Emergency Instructions in the Event of Release of Radioactivii
and Contamination of Personnel 386
Objectives of Remedial Action 386
Procedures for Dealing with Minor Spills
and Contamination 386
Personnel Decontamination 387
Major Releases of Airborne Radioactivity as a Result
of Explosions, Leakage of High-Level Sealed Gaseous
and Powdered Sources 387
APPENDIX B: The Regulatory Process  388
Radiation Control at the Federal Level 388
Radiation Control at the State Level 394
Inspection and Enforcement 394
APPENDIX C: Control of Airborne Releases to the Environment 396
Dilution in the Atmosphere 397
Filtration of Particles 399
Adsorption of Gases and Vapors on Charcoal 401
Adsorbers for Radioiodine 403

PART SIX    :  Ionizing Radiation and Public Health
1 Formulation of Standards for Radiation Protection 405
Standards for Protection of the Public against Radioactive
Contamination 414
Standards for the Cleanup of Sites Contaminated
with Radioactivity 415
Protective Actions for Exposures of the Public from Long-Term
and Unattributable Sources 416
2 Medical Findings on Humans Exposed to Radiation  417
Sources of Human Exposure Data 418
Epidemiological Studies of Leukemia and Other Cancers 425
Risk of Cancer from Exposure to Radiation 434
Effects on the Developing Embryo 438
Genetic Risks 439
Basic Mechanisms in the Genesis of Cancer by Ionizing Radiation 440
3 Risks to Health from Exposure to Alpha Radiation 442
Evolution of Protection Standards for Radon Gas
and Its Decay Products 442
Risk of Lung Cancer from Extended Exposure to Radon
and Its Short-Lived Decay Products 446
Exposure of Bone to Alpha Radiation 451
4 Implications for Humans from Results of Animal Experiments 451




5 Sources Producing Population Exposure 453
Natural Sources of External Radiation 454
Natural Sources of Radioactivity within the Body 458
Population Exposure from Medical and Dental X Rays 464
Population Exposure (Internal) from Radiopharmaceuticals 467
Environmental Radiation Levels from Fallout from Past
Weapons Tests 467
Potential External Exposure to the Population from Large-Scale Use
of Nuclear Power 470
Population Exposure (Internal) from Environmental Pollutants 470
6 Population Exposure from Radiation Accidents 483
Windscale, England-The First Major Nuclear Reactor Accident Causes
Significant Environmental Contamination 483
Palomares, Spain-Atomic Bombs Drop from the Sky, Igniting
and Contaminating a Countryside 485
Thule, Greenland-A Bomber Crashes and Its Nuclear
Weapons Ignite 487
Rocky Flats, Colorado-A Case History in Environmental Plutonium
Contamination from an Industrial Plant 488
Gabon, Africa-Site of Nature's Own Nuclear Reactor 490
Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania-A Nation Confronts the Awesome
Presence of the Atom 491
Chernobyl-The Fear of a Nuclear Catastrophe That Became
a Reality 498
Nuclear Power from the Perspective of the Three Mile Island
and the Chernobyl Accidents 500
7 Nuclear Weapons-Ready for Armageddon 504

PART SEVEN   :    Exposure to Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation
1 Electromagnetic Fields-Quantities, Units, and Maxwell's
Equations 513
The Electric Field 513
The Magnetic Field 515
Maxwell's Equation for Faraday's Law of Induction 515
Maxwell's Equation for Ampere's Law as Modified
for the Displacement Current 515
The Interactions of Electric and Magnetic Fields in a Medium  517
2 Interaction of Fields from Electric Power Lines with the Body  518
3 The Physics of Radiating Electromagnetic Fields 520
The Derivation of Equations for Electromagnetic Waves
from Maxwell's Equations 521




Electromagnetic Waves Generated by a Sinusoidal Oscillator 522
Relationships of Photons and Waves 524
4 Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation in the Body 524
Penetration of EMF into the Body 525
Induced and Contact Currents 525
5 Specifying Dose to Tissue from Electromagnetic Fields  526
The Production of Heat as the Main Biological Effect 526
Resonance-A Special Concern in Exposure
to Radiofrequency Radiation 527
The Specific Absorption Rate-The Basic Quantity for Assessment
of Exposure to Radiofrequency Radiation 527
6 Devices That Produce Electromagnetic Fields 528
Antennas 528
Cellular Phone Networks 530
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 531
Video Display Terminals 533
7 Making Measurements of ELF and Radiofrequency
Electromagnetic Fields 535
8 Standards for Protection against Electromagnetic Fields 536
Power Lines 537
Radiofrequency Standards 537
Telecommunications Standards 540
Microwave Ovens 542
Video Display Units 543
Static Magnetic and Electric Fields 543
Comparison of Basic Limits for Ionizing
and Nonionizing Radiation 543
9 Medical Findings on Humans 544
Static Magnetic Fields 544
Extremely Low Frequencies, Incuding Power Lines 546
Radiofrequencies 550
10 Effects on Animals-Basic Research 555
11 Exposures from Environmental Fields 556
Broadcasting: The Dominant Source of RF Radiation
in the Environment 557
Radar Installations for Civilian and Military Purposes 557
Transmitters for Cellular Phone Systems 558
Power Lines 558
Home and Office 559
12 Effects of Electromagnetic Interference on Pacemakers 560




PART EIGHT    :   Current Issues in Radiation Protection: Where the
Experts Stand
1 On Electromagnetic Fields 566
2 On Defining and Regulating the Hazards of Exposure
to Ionizing Radiation 568
On the Validity of the Linear No-Threshold (LN-T) Theory, That the
Effects of Radiation Are Directly Proportional to the Dose Down
to Zero Dose 568
The Exemption from Regulatory Control of Radiation Levels Below
Which Causation of Cancer Is Considered Insignificant 569
3 On Reducing Population Radiation Exposure from Medical
and Dental X Rays 570
4 On the Safety of Nuclear Power 573
5 On the Hazards of Nuclear Weapons Tests
and Underground Explosions 576
Hazards to the Public from Fallout from Atmospheric Testing
of Nuclear Bombs 576
Safety of the Use of Nuclear Explosives Underground for Large-Scale
Excavation or Development of Natural Resources 577
6 On the Consequences to Civilization of an All-Out
Thermonuclear War    578
7 A Personal Statement 580
APPENDIX I: Problems 583
APPENDIX II: Data on Selected Radionuclides 590
APPENDIX III: Some Constants, Conversion Factors, and Anatomical and
Physiological Data 594
Selected Bibliography 597
References 601
Index 649