Vowels of Standard American English
Half Title Page
Editors of Previous Editions
Title Page
CONTENTS
Symbols Used Throughout the Book
An Introduction to Language Files
Further Resources for Using Language Files
Contributors to the 12th Edition
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Contents
1.1.2 Some Surprising but True Things about Language
1.1.4 Underlying Themes of Linguistic Study
1.1.5 How to Use This Book
1.2.1 Linguistic Competence and Linguistic Performance&
1.2.2 The Speech Communication Chain
1.2.3 What You Know When You Know a Language
1.2.4 How Your Linguistic Competence Is Stored&
1.2.5 Uncovering and Describing What You Know
1.3.2 Writing Is Secondary to Speech (And Not Necessary for Knowledge of a Language)
1.3.3 Language Is Not Prescriptive Grammar
1.4.3 Semanticity
1.4.7 Arbitrariness
1.4.10 Productivity
1.4.11 What the Design Features Tell Us, and What They Don’t Tell Us
1.5.1 Auditory-Vocal and Visual-Gestural Languages&
1.5.2 Some Common Misconceptions about Visual-Gestural Languages
1.5.3 Who Uses Signed Languages?
1.5.4 Representing Signs in a Two-Dimensional Format
1.5.5 The Importance of Studying Different Modalities
File 1.2—What You Know When You Know a Language
File 1.3—Other (Non-Essential) Aspects of Knowing a Language
File 1.4—Design Features of Language
File 1.5—Language Modality
Further Readings
CHAPTER 2: Phonetics
Contents
2.1.1 Studying Pronunciation
2.1.2 The “Right” Phonetic Alphabet
2.1.3 Types of Speech Sounds
2.1.4 Phonetic Symbols for English
2.2.2 Anatomy of Human Speech Production
2.2.3 States of the Glottis: Voicing
2.2.4 Place of Articulation
2.2.5 Manner of Articulation
2.2.6 Investigating Place and Manner of Articulation: Palatography&
2.2.7 The Consonant Chart
2.3.1 Articulatory Properties of Vowels
2.3.2 Tongue Height
2.3.3 Tongue Advancement
2.3.6 Describing Vowels: Diphthongs
2.3.7 Investigating Vowel Articulations
2.4.2 Vowels
2.4.3 Fricatives
2.4.5 Places of Articulation Not Used in English
2.4.6 Manners of Articulation Not Used in English
2.5.2 Length
2.5.3 Intonation
2.5.4 Tone
2.5.5 Stress
2.6.2 Simple Sound Waves
2.6.3 Complex Sound Waves
2.6.4 Vowels
2.6.5 Stops
2.6.7 Nasals, Liquids, and Glides
2.6.8 Interpreting Spectrograms
2.7.2 The Parameters of Articulation in Signed Languages
2.7.3 Location
2.7.4 Movement
2.7.5 Handshape
2.7.6 Orientation
2.7.7 Non-Manual Markers
2.7.8 Phonetic Inventories in Signed Languages&
2.7.9 Studying and Analyzing the Phonetics of Signed Languages&
File 2.2—Articulation: English Consonants
File 2.3—Articulation: English Vowels
File 2.5—Suprasegmental Features
File 2.6—Acoustic Phonetics
File 2.7—The Phonetics of Signed Languages
Further Readings
CHAPTER 3: Phonology
Contents
3.1.1 Phonotactic Constraints
3.1.2 Phonotactic Constraints in Signed Languages
3.1.3 Foreign Accents
3.2.1 Different Sounds Have Different Distributions
3.2.2 Allophones and Phonemes
3.2.3 Identifying Phonemes and Allophones: The Distribution of Speech Sounds
3.2.4 Free Variation
3.3.1 Phonological Rules
3.3.2 Natural Classes
3.3.3 Types of Phonological Rules
3.3.4 Multiple Rule Application
3.3.5 Obligatory and Optional Rules
3.4.2 Sound Inventories
3.4.3 Frequency and Distribution
3.4.6 Explaining Implicational Laws
3.5.2 How to Do a Phonemic Analysis
3.5.3 Some Potential Trouble Spots
3.5.4 Flowchart for Discovering the Distribution of Sounds&
File 3.1—Phonotactic Constraints and Foreign Accents
File 3.2—Phonemes and Allophones
File 3.3—Phonological Rules
File 3.4—Implicational Laws
File 3.5—How to Solve Phonology Problems
Further Readings
CHAPTER 4: Morphology
Contents
4.1.1 What Are Words Like?
4.1.2 Derivation
4.1.3 Inflection
4.1.4 Some Notes about Morphemes
4.1.5 Classifying Elements in Morphology
4.1.6 Derived and Inflected Words in the Lexicon
4.2.3 Affixation in Signed Languages
4.2.4 Compounding
4.2.5 Reduplication
4.2.6 Alternations
4.2.7 Suppletion
4.3.2 Analytic Languages
4.3.3 Synthetic Languages
4.3.5 The Second Type of Synthetic Language: Fusional Languages
4.3.6 The Third Type of Synthetic Language: Polysynthetic Languages
4.4.1 How Words Are Put Together
4.4.2 Ambiguous Morphemes and Words
4.4.3 Morphemes That Can Attach to More than One Lexical Category
4.5.1 The Nature and Goals of Morphological Analysis
4.5.3 Some Cautionary Notes
File 4.1—Words and Word Formation: The Nature of the Lexicon
File 4.2—Morphological Processes
File 4.4—The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words
File 4.5—Morphological Analysis
Further Readings
CHAPTER 5: Syntax
Contents
5.1.2 The Relationship between Syntax and Semantics
5.2.2 Word Order
5.2.3 Co-Occurrence
5.3.2 Answers to Questions
5.3.4 Pro-Form Substitution
5.4.1 What Are Syntactic Categories?
5.4.2 Syntactic Categories in English
5.5.2 Parts of the Grammar: The Lexicon and the Rules
5.5.3 Ambiguity
File 5.1—Basic Ideas of Syntax
File 5.2—Syntactic Properties
File 5.3—Syntactic Constituency
File 5.4—Syntactic Categories
File 5.5—Constructing a Grammar
Further Readings
CHAPTER 6: Semantics
Contents
6.1.2 Two Aspects of Linguistic Meaning
6.2.2 Word Senses
6.2.3 Word Reference
6.2.4 Meaning Relationships
6.3.1 Propositions and Truth Values
6.3.2 Relationships between Propositions
6.4.1 The Principle of Compositionality
6.4.2 Combining the Meanings of Verb Phrases and Noun Phrases
6.4.3 Combining the Meanings of Adjectives and Nouns
File 6.1—An Overview of Semantics
File 6.2—Lexical Semantics: The Meanings of Words
File 6.3—Compositional Semantics: The Meanings of Sentences
File 6.4—Compositional Semantics: Putting Meanings Together
Further Readings
CHAPTER 7: Pragmatics
Contents
7.1.3 How Context Affects Meaning
7.1.4 Types of Context
7.1.5 Felicity: Appropriateness Relative to a Context
7.2.1 Rules for Conversation
7.2.2 Introducing Grice’s Maxims
7.2.3 Flouting Maxims
7.2.4 Grice’s Maxims in a Wider Context
7.3.2 Drawing Conclusions: Inference, Implication, and Implicature&
7.3.3 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Relevance
7.3.4 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Quantity
7.3.6 Implicature Based on the Maxim of Quality
7.3.7 The Significance of Implicatures to Communication
7.4.1 An Introduction to Speech Acts
7.4.2 Felicity Conditions
7.4.3 Performative Verbs and Performative Speech Acts
7.4.4 Identifying Performative Speech Acts
7.4.6 Identifying Indirect Speech Acts
7.4.7 Sentences and Their Relation to Speech Acts
7.5.1 Presuppositions of Existence
7.5.2 Presuppositions and Truth Values
7.5.4 Presupposition Accommodation
File 7.1—Language in Context
File 7.2—Rules of Conversation
File 7.3—Drawing Conclusions
File 7.4—Speech Acts
File 7.5—Presupposition
Further Readings
CHAPTER 8: Language Acquisition
Contents
8.1.2 The Innateness Hypothesis
8.1.3 Imitation Theory
8.1.5 Active Construction of a Grammar Theory
8.1.6 Connectionist Theories
8.1.7 Social Interaction Theory
8.2.1 Physiological Prerequisites of Sound Perception and Production
8.2.2 Babbling
8.2.3 Phonological Acquisition
8.2.4 Language Development from Birth to Twelve Months&
8.3.3 The Two-Word Stage
8.3.4 Later Stages of Development
8.3.5 The Acquisition of Word Meaning
8.3.6 Overview: Language Abilities from Twelve Months to Four Years
8.4.2 How Adults Get Children to Pay Attention&
8.4.3 What Adults Say to Young Children
8.4.4 How Adults Talk to Children
8.4.5 How Necessary Is Child-Directed Speech?
8.5.1 Scenarios of Bilingual Language Acquisition
8.5.2 Bilingual First-Language Acquisition
8.5.4 Second-Language Acquisition
File 8.1—Theories of Language Acquisition
File 8.2—First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Speech Sounds and Phonology
File 8.3—First-Language Acquisition: The Acquisition of Morphology, Syntax, and Word Meaning
File 8.4—How Adults Talk to Young Children
File 8.5—Bilingual Language Acquisition
Further Readings
CHAPTER 9: Psycholinguistics
Contents
9.1.2 Physical Features of the Brain
9.1.3 The Flow of Linguistic Information
9.1.4 Lateralization and Contralateralization
9.2.2 Broca’s Aphasia
9.2.3 Wernicke’s Aphasia
9.2.6 Aphasia in Signers
9.2.7 Specific Language Impairment, Williams Syndrome, and the Innateness Hypothesis
9.3.2 Models of Speech Production
9.3.4 Production Errors: Slips of the Tongue
9.3.5 Production Errors: Slips of the Hands
9.3.6 Learning from Our Mistakes
9.4.2 Speaker Normalization
9.4.3 Categorical Perception
9.4.4 Context and Rate Effects
9.4.6 Other Factors Involved in Speech Perception
9.5.2 The Mental Lexicon
9.5.3 Word Recognition
9.5.4 The Cohort Model
9.5.5 Neural Network Models
9.5.6 Lexical Ambiguity
9.6.2 Structural Ambiguity
9.7.2 Measuring Activity in the Brain
9.7.3 Choosing a Method
9.7.4 Tasks for Lexical Processing
9.7.5 Tasks for Sentence Processing
File 9.1—Language and the Brain
File 9.2—Language Disorders
File 9.3—Speech Production
File 9.4—Speech Perception
File 9.5—Lexical Access
File 9.6—Sentence Processing
Further Readings
CHAPTER 10: Language Variation
Contents
10.1.1 Languages, Dialects, and Idiolects
10.1.3 Jargon and Slang
10.1.4 Standard Dialects and Notions of Prestige
10.2.2 Phonetic Variation
10.2.3 Phonological Variation
10.2.5 Syntactic Variation
10.2.6 Lexical Variation
10.3.2 Regional and Geographic Variation
10.3.3 A Case Study in Regional Variation: The United States
10.3.5 New England
10.3.6 The South
10.3.7 Appalachia
10.3.8 The Midland
10.3.9 The West
10.4.2 Socioeconomic Variation
10.4.4 Gender Variation
10.4.5 Ethnic Variation
10.5.2 Defining “Identity”
10.5.3 Signaling Identity
10.5.4 Studying Identity
10.5.5 Martha’s Vineyard: A Case Study in Language and Identity
File 10.1—Language Varieties
File 10.2—Variation at Different Levels of Linguistic Structure
File 10.3—Factors Influencing Variation: Regional and Geographic Factors
File 10.4—Factors Influencing Variation: Social Factors
Further Readings
CHAPTER 11: Language and Culture
Contents
11.1.2 Kinship Terms
11.1.3 Communicative Competence
11.1.4 Indexicality
11.2.1 What Is Linguistic Relativity?
11.2.2 Early Studies in Linguistic Relativity
11.2.4 More Recent Investigation of Linguistic Relativity
11.2.5 Beyond Relativity: Linguistic Determinism and Cultural Anthropology&
11.2.6 Is Linguistic Relativity True?
11.3.2 Power in Conversations
11.3.3 Power in Society
11.4.2 Indirectness
11.4.4 The T/V Distinction
11.4.5 Face Theory
11.5.1 What Is Ethnography?
11.5.2 Etic and Emic
11.5.3 A Case Study in Ethnography: Jocks and Burnouts at Belten High
File 11.1—Linguistic Anthropology
File 11.3—Language and Power
File 11.4—Politeness
Further Readings
CHAPTER 12: Language Contact
Contents
12.1.2 Levels of Borrowing
12.1.3 Contact Situations
12.1.4 Outcomes of Language Contact
12.2.2 Sources of English Words
12.3.2 Common Features of Pidgins
12.3.3 Sources of Pidgin Lexicon and Grammar
12.4.1 Social Contexts of Creole Formation
12.4.2 Shared Features
12.5.1 Societal Multilingualism
12.5.2 Code-Switching and Diglossia
12.6.1 Minority Language Status
12.6.2 From Minority Status to Endangerment
12.6.4 What Happens to a Language as It Loses Speakers and Dies?
12.6.5 A Final Word (Or Two)
12.7.2 Kupwar
12.7.3 Deitsch
12.7.4 Conclusion
File 12.2—Borrowings into English
File 12.3—Pidgin Languages
File 12.5—Societal Multilingualism
File 12.6—Language Endangerment and Language Death&
Further Readings
CHAPTER 13: Language Change
Contents
13.1.1 Synchronic vs. Diachronic Linguistics
13.1.3 Why Does a Language Change?
13.1.4 Is Language Change Bad?
13.2.1 Similarities across Languages
13.2.2 Models of Language Relatedness
13.3.1 What Is Sound Change?
13.3.2 Phonetic vs. Phonological Change
13.3.4 Types of Sound Change
13.4.2 Proportional Analogy and Paradigm Leveling
13.4.3 Back Formation and Folk Etymology
13.4.4 Adding New Words to a Language
13.5.2 Changes in Word Order
13.5.3 Changes in Co-Occurrence
13.5.4 Causes of Syntactic Change
13.6.2 Semantic Extensions
13.6.3 Semantic Reductions
13.6.6 Interactions of Semantic Changes
13.7.2 Internal Reconstruction
13.7.3 Comparative Reconstruction
13.7.4 Comparative Method Procedure
File 13.2—Language Relatedness
File 13.3—Sound Change
File 13.4—Morphological Change
File 13.6—Semantic Change
File 13.7—Internal Reconstruction and Comparative Reconstruction
Further Readings
CHAPTER 14: Animal Communication
Contents
14.1.2 Design Features Shared by All Communication Systems&
14.1.3 Design Features Exhibited by Some Animal Communication Systems
14.1.4 Design Features Not Found in Animal Communication Systems
14.1.5 What the Design Features Show Us about Animal Communication&
14.2.1 Bee Communication
14.2.2 Bird Communication
14.2.3 Primate Communication
14.2.4 Concluding Remarks
14.3.2 Primate Studies
14.3.3 Non-Primate Studies
File 14.1—Communication and Language
File 14.2—Animal Communication in the Wild
File 14.3—Can Animals Be Taught Language?
Further Readings
CHAPTER 15: Writing Systems
Contents
15.1.1 What Is Writing?
15.1.3 Writing and Culture
15.1.4 Functional Writing Systems
15.1.5 Computer-Mediated Communication
15.2.1 Classifying Writing Systems
15.2.2 Morphographic Writing Systems
15.2.3 Phonographic Writing Systems
15.3.2 Early Writing Systems
15.3.3 The Development of the Greek and Roman Alphabets (and Other Writing Systems)
15.3.4 Deciphering Ancient Languages
File 15.2—Types of Writing Systems
Further Readings
CHAPTER 16: Language and Computers
Contents
16.1.2 The Earliest Synthesis Machines
16.1.4 Concatenative Synthesis
16.1.5 Text-To Speech Synthesis
16.1.6 Applications of Speech Synthesis
16.2.2 The Noisy Channel Model
16.2.3 Components of an Automatic Speech Recognition System
16.2.4 Types of Speech Recognition Systems
16.2.6 Future Directions
16.3.2 Interactive Text-Based Systems
16.3.3 Spoken-Language Dialogue Systems
16.3.4 Components of a Spoken-Language Dialogue System&
16.3.5 Evaluation of Interactive Systems
16.4.2 The Translation Problem
16.4.3 MT System Design
16.5.1 What Is a Corpus?
16.5.2 Kinds of Corpora
File 16.1—Speech Synthesis
File 16.3—Communicating with Computers
File 16.5—Corpus Linguistics
Further Readings
CHAPTER 17: Practical Applications
Contents
17.1.1 Job Description
17.1.3 Language Education and Linguistics
17.2.1 Job Description
17.2.2 Job Qualifications
17.3.2 Forensic Linguistics
17.3.3 Jobs Available and Job Qualifications
17.4.2 Using Language to Establish Trust
17.4.3 Using Language to Convey a Message of Superiority
17.4.4 Job Qualifications
17.5.3 The Limits of Secrecy
17.5.4 Traffic Analysis
17.5.5 Codes and Ciphers
17.5.6 Enigma
17.5.7 Job Qualifications
17.6.1 Job Description
17.6.2 Job Qualifications
File 17.2—Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
File 17.3—Forensic Linguistics
File 17.4—Language in Advertising
File 17.5—Codes and Code-Breaking
Further Readings
File 3.6 Exercise 22—Phonology Exercise on Mokilese
File 4.6 Exercise 24(a)—Morphology Exercise on Hierarchical Structure
File 7.6 Exercise 13—Pragmatics Exercise on the Maxim of Quantity
File 13.8 Exercise 34—Reconstruction Exercise on Middle Chinese
GLOSSARY
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
LANGUAGE INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
Examples of Phonetic Symbols Found in Standard American English
Consonants of Standard American English
THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (revised to 2005)