TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ex Occidente Lux: A Preface / Michael Dietler and Carolina López-Ruiz
Part I - Theoretical Issues and Frameworks
Colonial Encounters in Iberia and the Western Mediterranean: An Exploratory Framework - Michael Dietler
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0001
[colonialism, ancient Iberia, social sciences, Western Mediterranean, anthropology, postcolonial studies, colonization, imperialism, acculturation theory, world-systems theory]
This chapter explains why the ancient encounters explored in this volume should be of interest and importance to a wide variety of readers, well beyond the group of specialists convened to produce this panorama of new research on ancient colonialism in Iberia. It also contextualizes the specific Iberian cases considered here within both the broader history of colonial encounters in the ancient Western Mediterranean and larger theoretical debates about colonialism that are taking place within fields such as anthropology and postcolonial studies. In other words, in addition to setting the stage for readers not already familiar with the history of the ancient Mediterranean, the chapter suggests both why the particular case of ancient Iberia is of considerable significance to broader studies of colonialism in the social sciences and humanities and, reciprocally, why scholars focusing on the Iberian case can profit from a broader engagement with discussions in these other domains. First, it defines the intersecting terms “colonization,” “colonialism,” and “imperialism.” It then discusses the “acculturation theory” and world-systems theory to explain colonial encounters. (pages 3 - 48)
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Colonial Relations and Social Change in Iberia (Seventh to Third Centuries BC) - Joan Sanmartí
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0002
[Iberia, Iberian Peninsula, Greeks, Phoenicians, indigenous peoples, colonial relations, colonial trade, Straits of Gibraltar, Roman Republic, Second Punic War]
The word “Iberia” and the ethnonym “Iberes” were used by the ancient Greeks to designate a relatively vast region on the Mediterranean edge of the Iberian Peninsula that extended to the north of Cartagena to the Pyrenees, or even farther. In the second century BC, the term acquired a more general signification and tended to name the whole peninsula. This chapter offers a brief account of the colonial relations that developed in Iberia from the seventh century BC, when Phoenician traders coming from the Straits of Gibraltar area visited its shores for the first time, until the last years of the third century BC, when, as a result of the Second Punic War, the whole area came under the rule of the Roman Republic. It examines the role of colonial trade in the transformation of indigenous Iberian societies in different regions during the period. It emphasizes especially the complex, contingent, and regionally variable relations that developed among Phoenicians, Greeks, and indigenous peoples. (pages 49 - 88)
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Part II - New Perspectives on Phoenician and Greek Ventures on the Mediterranean and Atlantic Coasts
Colonial Contacts and Protohistoric Indigenous Urbanism on the Mediterranean Coast of the Iberian Peninsula - Maria Carme Belarte
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0003
[Iberian Peninsula, indigenous peoples, urbanism, architecture, Mediterranean, settlements, commerce, Catalonia, colonial contacts]
At the end of the eighth century BC, the indigenous populations of the Iberian Peninsula began a period characterized by contacts with other peoples of the Mediterranean. These colonial contacts took a variety of forms, from simple commercial activity initiated by traders (without the foundation of settlements) to the establishment of new colonial settlements with a largely foreign population—as in the case of the Phoenician settlements of the south and southeast of the Peninsula or that of Sa Caleta on the Island of Ibiza. In regard to urbanism and architecture, it is generally accepted that the presence of these settlements resulted in indigenous peoples' adoption of some new elements, such as a rectangular floor plan and buildings with a complex ground plan. This chapter analyzes the current state of research concerning the first urbanism on the Mediterranean peninsular coast, placing emphasis on the significance of the potential role played by the colonial factor—in particular, Phoenician commerce. The discussion is centered on southern Catalonia, but selected sites of the littoral are also examined. (pages 91 - 112)
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Phoenician Colonization on the Atlantic Coast of the Iberian Peninsula - Ana Margarida Arruda
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0004
[Portugal, archaeological sites, indigenous peoples, colonists, Phoenicians, ceramics, contact, colonization, Atlantic Coast, Iberian Peninsula]
Although a Near Eastern presence had been documented for the “Far West”—namely Portuguese territory—since the nineteenth century, study of the arrival of Eastern Mediterranean populations on the European Atlantic coast expanded considerably in the last twenty years of the twentieth century. In effect, the discovery and excavation of archaeological sites of mostly Mediterranean material culture has almost tripled since the 1980s. Today, the amount of archaeological data concerning the presence of Phoenicians in Portuguese territory is extensive and varying in nature, and we possess finds and architecture that can be analyzed in the context of an Orientalizing Iron Age. This chapter investigates the Phoenician colonization on the Atlantic Coast of the Iberian Peninsula. It analyzes ceramics and their stratigraphic sequences, domestic and funerary architecture, radiocarbon dates, and even the geography of the sites to understand the motives behind Phoenician voyages to Portugal, their chronology, and not only how settlement took place but how means of contact were established between the indigenous peoples and foreign groups of colonists. (pages 113 - 130)
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Greeks and the Iberian Peninsula: Forms of Exchange and Settlements - Pierre Rouillard
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0005
[Mediterranean, Iberian Peninsula, Greeks, exchanges, trading centers, colonization, Iberia, Hispanic emporia, settlements]
Within the Mediterranean region, the Iberian Peninsula is the only place where Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Greeks interacted during the same time period and participated equally in the Mediterranean network of exchanges. It is also the only territory where groups of both Semitic and Greek origin lived side by side for five centuries without the geographical boundaries that existed in Sicily. Trading centers on the Iberian Peninsula share two basic traits: they are small and do not occupy much land, and they are without an extensive hinterland or chora. This chapter makes the case for the Greek contribution to the colonial situation and challenges a number of prior assumptions on the basis of recent archaeological excavations. In particular, it presses the case for “colonization without colonies,” arguing that the number of alien colonists in Iberia, Greek or Phoenician, was very small and confined to rather modest settlements of a distinctive type that it calls “Hispanic emporia.” (pages 131 - 152)
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Part III - Plant Resources, Agrarian Practices, and the Colonial Political Economy
Botanical and Archaeological Dimensions of the Colonial Encounter - Ramon Buxó
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0006
[Mediterranean, Iberian Peninsula, Iron Age, agriculture, colonization, wine, cereals, legumes, olive oil]
The evolution of Iberian society cannot be understood without an emphasis on the encounter with colonial cultures, Phoenician and Greek, that established colonies along the Mediterranean zone of the Iberian Peninsula. Their presence and their actions were transformative, definitively affecting the structure of indigenous communities of the region. Not least among these changes to consider is the evolution of the production of vegetal resources during the Iron Age in the region, which appears to have progressed from an economy of cereal products to an expansion of vineyards and later of olive trees. The production of wine seems to be one of the distinguishing elements of Phoenician colonization. This chapter presents recent evidence documenting long-term changes in the agrarian base of indigenous societies before and after the arrival of Phoenician and Greek colonists. In particular, it examines important new data concerning the development of indigenous wine and olive oil production and discusses the relationship of these practices to traditional grain-based agriculture. It also explores the impact of colonization on the traditional cultivation of cereals and legumes. (pages 155 - 168)
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Lumbermen and Shipwrights: Phoenicians on the Mediterranean Coast of Southern Spain - Brigitte Treumann
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0007
[indigenous peoples, Phoenicians, Greeks, Iberian Peninsula, Spain, timber, Gadir, trade, settlements, Mediterranean]
This chapter examines the evidence and nature of interaction between indigenous peoples and Phoenicians and Greeks who colonized the Iberian Peninsula during the first millennium BC. It discusses the trans-Mediterranean demand for wood and makes the case for the importance of timber in explaining Phoenicians' interest in the Andalusian coast of Iberia, thereby challenging the traditional emphasis on metal resources as the defining vector in Phoenician colonial ventures in Iberia. It suggests that the ever-growing demand for wood and its eminently transportable byproducts was a prime mover in the establishment and existence of the west Phoenician communities on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, where the immediate hinterland offered many woody species but no precious metals to speak of. Further, the chapter argues that these settlements with their specialized industrial activities and output (shipwrighting prominent among them) may have had strong economic (and perhaps administrative) ties with the great western colonial hub of Gadir for local and long-distance trade networks, transport, and distribution. (pages 169 - 190)
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Part IV - The Question of Tartessos: A Debate Reframed
Phoenicians in Tartessos - María Belén Deamos
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0008
[trade, Tartessos, indigenous peoples, Huelva, Phoenicians, Greeks, archaeological research, Guadalquivir, Eastern Mediterranean, colonization]
The most striking aspect of the transformations following the onset of Phoenician trade in Tartessos is the indigenous peoples' apparent adoption of religious iconography and funerary rituals with markedly Eastern characteristics. The cemetery of La Joya and the urban center of the city of Huelva have clearly shown how interested both Phoenicians and Greeks were in this Tartessian settlement. Their interest can be easily explained if we keep in mind not only Huelva's proximity to mining centers and its location along the route to the Portuguese Atlantic but also the experience the indigenous peoples had in long-distance trade. This chapter provides an updated overview of ongoing archaeological research in the Guadalquivir area (Huelva, Seville, etc.), deploying a wealth of new data to challenge traditional interpretations of important sites such as El Carambolo (Seville) while stressing the deep level of interaction and cohabitation between local populations and colonists from the Eastern Mediterranean in this region. It explores the possibility of agricultural colonization and the integration of Semitic and indigenous cultic practices in a commercially active environment. (pages 193 - 228)
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Precolonization and Colonization in the Interior of Tartessos - Sebastián Celestino-Pérez
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0009
[Iberian Peninsula, precolonization, colonization, Tartessos, Phoenicians, Greeks, Guadalquivir, stone stele, warriors, Cancho Roano]
In the Iberian Peninsula, with a few exceptions, the term “precolonization” is linked more closely with the presence of objects from the East immediately prior to colonization by the Phoenicians and the Greeks, than with a phenomenon of cultural assimilation. For this reason it refers to a matter of simple commercial contact prior, though essential, to a subsequent colonization. Nevertheless, the appearance of Mycenaean ceramics in the central Guadalquivir has resulted in a new research channel for which we still have few, though significant, data. This chapter discusses the popular concept of “precolonization” and uses a variety of evidence, including especially a series of stone stele of warriors, to evaluate the sociopolitical organization in Tartessos and the activities and interests of Phoenician colonists in the interior. It focuses on the changing economic and political relationships between different areas of the Tartessian domain and examines the implications they had for Phoenician activity in the region. It also looks at the Cancho Roano architectural complex at Zalamea de La Serena, in the province of Badajoz. (pages 229 - 252)
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Part V - Interrogating Colonial Texts and Imagined Landscapes
Tarshish and Tartessos Revisited: Textual Problems and Historical Implications - Carolina López-Ruiz
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0010
[Phoenicians, colonization, Iberian Peninsula, Tartessos, protohistory, Tarshish, Hebrew Bible, Levant, Mediterranean]
Within the framework of a new discussion of Phoenician and Greek colonization in the Iberian Peninsula, the question of the possible identification of the protohistoric culture of Tartessos in the mentions of a legendary Tarshish in the Hebrew Bible is quite relevant. The correlation between the Tartessos of the Iberian Peninsula, mentioned by Greek authors, and the Tarshish of the Hebrew Bible was first suggested in a late lexicon. The dual enigma of the identification of Tarshish and Tartessos has since sparked the enthusiasm of both biblical scholars and archaeologists of the Iberian Peninsula's protohistory. Should the identification be proven correct, the culture of Tartessos would leave the shadowy land of semi-mythical imagination where Herodotus and others had placed it and would gain a more prominent position in Mediterranean history. The appearance of Tartessos in the Hebrew Bible would both provide a written proof of the important connection of Tartessos with the Levant and reinforce the theory of an early date for the first arrival of the Phoenicians in the West. (pages 255 - 280)
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Iberia in the Greek Geographical Imagination - Javier Gómez Espelosín
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0011
[geographical discovery, Greeks, Archaic period, Tartessos, geography, Iberia, mythological landscape, Herodotus, traders, explorers]
We know very little of actual experiences of geographical discovery achieved by the Greeks, or conveyed in some way to them by the real protagonists, during the Archaic period. Most of the fragmentary scraps available to us are of uncertain origin and have ended up being incorporated as mere allusions in Herodotus's work, such as the travel of the Samian merchant Colaeus (or Colaios) to Tartessos, the exploration of the Carian mariner Scylax and other unnamed travelers through the coastal lands of the Indian Ocean, or the voyage undertaken by an African tribe (the Nasamonians) from the vicinity of Cyrene to the hitherto unknown hinterland of that continent. This chapter undertakes an extensive textual analysis of ancient Greek perceptions of geography in order to understand the experience of early colonial traders and explorers who ventured to the shores of Iberia. It shows how, before the age of Strabo, Iberia was perceived through a cultural filter shaped by the combination of a hodological tradition of envisioning and navigating space and an imagined mythological landscape. (pages 281 - 298)
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Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia a Coda - Michael Dietler, Carolina López-Ruiz
DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226148489.003.0012
[colonial encounters, Phoenicians, Greeks, indigenous peoples, ancient Iberia, settlements, trading centers, merchants, economic relations]
This book has provided a multinational, polydisciplinary overview of current trends in the exploration of colonial encounters between Phoenicians, Greeks, and indigenous peoples in ancient Iberia. Due to recent archaeological work, discussion of the Phoenician and Greek presence in Iberia has moved on to more sociologically interesting questions, such as the diverse natures and histories of different colonial settlements, the economic relations between Phoenicians and Greeks, the forms and logic of interaction with indigenous peoples (including the significance of indigenous agency), and the social and cultural consequences of the encounters for all the parties involved. Another aspect of the colonial situation where understanding has been greatly improved by recent archaeological work is awareness of the existence and importance of indigenous trading centers, with the presence of resident or itinerant Phoenician and Greek merchants. (pages 299 - 312)
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List of Contributors
Index of Places
