The ancient Middle East was the theater of passionate interaction between Phoenicians, Aramaeans, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. At the crossroads of the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, and the Arabian peninsula, the area dominated by what the Romans called Syria was at times a scene of violent confrontation, but more often one of peaceful interaction, of prosperous cultivation, energetic production, and commerce--a crucible of cultural, religious, and artistic innovations that profoundly determined the course of world history.

Maurice Sartre has written a long overdue and comprehensive history of the Semitic Near East (modern Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel) from the eve of the Roman conquest to the end of the third century C.E. and the dramatic rise of Christianity. Sartre's broad yet finely detailed perspective takes in all aspects of this history, not just the political and military, but economic, social, cultural, and religious developments as well. He devotes particular attention to the history of the Jewish people, placing it within that of the whole Middle East.

Drawing upon the full range of ancient sources, including literary texts, Greek, Latin, and Semitic inscriptions, and the most recent archaeological discoveries, The Middle East under Rome will be an indispensable resource for students and scholars. This absorbing account of intense cultural interaction will also engage anyone interested in the history of the Middle East.

    Preface to the English-Language Edition xi
    Acknowledgments xiii
    Translators' Note xv

    Introduction

1   The Hellenistic Legacy
       The Creation of New States I2
       Syria between Parthians, Romans, and Armenians 2z

2   The End of Seleucid Syria and the First Roman Rule
      (69-31 B.C.E.)                                                31
      The Beginnings of Roman Intervention 32
      Pompey and Syria 37
      Syria at the Time of the Roman Civil War 44

3   From Augustus to Trajan: Creating a Province                    54
       The Provincia and Its Governors 5
       The Defenses of Imperial Syria in the First Century 60
       The Client States in the First Century C.E. 70

4   The Crises in Judaea from Herod to Bar Kokhba                   88
        Herod the Great 89
        Herod's Heirs 93
        The Era of Prefects and Procurators I03






       The Revolt of 66-70 and Its Consequences  17
       From the Fall of the Temple to Bar Kokhba 127

5  From Trajan to the Severi: Conquests and Reorganizations      132
        New Provinces, New Divisions I33
        Defense of the Country and Roman Campaigns I36

6   Civic Life and Urban Development during the Early Empire       5 I
        The Spread of the Polis and the Creation of Colonies  I52
        The Structure and Organization of Municipal Life  I56
        City Profiles I88

7   Rural Life in the Early Empire                               206
        Land Tenure and Land Use 207
        Agricultural Practices and Production 217
        Villages and Village Communities 224
        Nomads 233

8   The Urban Economy in Roman Syria                             240
        Artisans 241
        Money and Customs Duties 249
        Roads and Ports 258
        Local and Foreign Trade 260

9   Hellenization and Indigenous Cultures                         274
        Syrian Hellenism 275
        Indigenous Cultures 29I

10 Pagans, Jews, and Christians in Roman Syria in the Second
       and Third Centuries                                         297
       Gods and Pagan Sanctuaries 299
       Rabbinical Judaism 319
       The Beginnings of Christianization 335

11   A Time of Trials                                              343
        Edessa, Hatra, and Dura-Europos 344
        Palmyra 350
        Phylarchs and Nomad Chiefs 358

     Conclusion                                                    364

     Abbreviations 37I
     Notes 375
     Works Cited 557
     Index 649