Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
1. CLOVIS INVESTIGATIONS IN THE SAN PEDRO VALLEY 1
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
Clovis Site Discoveries in the San Pedro Valley 1
Discovery of the Murray Springs Site 6
Murray Springs 1966¿1971 8
2. QUATERNARY GEOLOGY OF THE MURRAY SPRINGS CLOVIS SITE 16
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
Geomorphology and Modern Conditions 18
Stratigraphy of Curry Draw 28
St. David Formation (Stratum X) 30
Nexpa Formation (Stratum Y) 31
Millville Formation (Stratum Z) 31
Murray Springs Formation and Emergent Water Table 31
Moson Ranch Member (Stratum D1) 31
Sobaipuri Member (Stratum D) 32
Coro Marl Member (Stratum E) 32
Fry Ranch Member (Stratum D2) 34
Kendall Ranch Member (Stratum E1) 34
Graveyard Gulch Member (Stratum F1) and Decline of the Water Table 35
The Clovis Age Landscape 40
Lehner Ranch Formation 44
Clanton Ranch Member (Black Mat, Stratum F2) and the Reemergence of the Water 
Table 45
Earp Member (White Marl, Stratum F2b), the Ponding Facies 45
Donnet Ranch Member (Stratum F3) and Gentle Aggradation 47
Escapule Ranch Formation, Times of Arroyo Cutting and Filling 49
Weik Ranch Member (Stratum G1) 49
Hargis Ranch Member (Stratum G2a) 51
McCool Ranch Member (Stratum G2b) 52
Bakarich Ranch Member (Stratum G3) 53
Teviston Member (Stratum H) and Modern Arroyo Cutting 53
Curry Draw Member (Stratum J) 54
Late Quaternary Paleoclimatic Interpretations 54
3. MODERN VEGETATION OF THE MURRAY SPRINGS AREA AND THE UPPER SAN PEDRO 
VALLEY 57
Susan L. Woodward
Modern Vegetation of Curry Draw 57
Vegetation History 59
4. MOLLUSCAN FAUNAS OF THE SAN PEDRO VALLEY, ARIZONA 62
Jim I. Mead
The Upper San Pedro River Valley 63
Physiography and Biomes 63
Modern Cienegas in Southeastern Arizona 64
Methods of Study at the Fossil Sites 68
Fossil Molluscan Fauna 69
Terrestrial Fauna 70
Aquatic Fauna 75
Comparison of Fossil and Modern Assemblages 76
Habitat Reconstruction 78
Millville Alluvium (Z2) 78
Sobaipuri Mudstone (D) 78
Coro Marl (E) 78
Graveyard Sand (F1) 78
Clanton Clay (F2) 79
Donnet Silt (F3) 79
Weik Alluvium (G1) 80
McCool Alluvium (G2b) 80
Significance of the Faunal Record 80
Evaluation of the Faunal Record 82
5. BURIED ANIMAL KILLS AND PROCESSING LOCALITIES, AREAS 1¿5 83
E. Thomas Hemmings
Methods of Investigation 83
Stratigraphy of the Clovis Occupation 84
Vertebrate Remains 85
Bone Preservation 86
Wolf Creek Deposits, Areas 1 and 2 86
Vertebrate Remains 87
Area 1 Mammoths 92
Area 2 Mammoths 93
Bison 93
Camels 93
Horses 94
Canids 94
Artifacts 94
Charcoal 94
Area 1 and Area 3 Extensions 94
Charcoal 95
Flaked Lithic Debris 95
Overview of Areas 1 and 2 95
The Mammoth Kill, Area 3 96
Occupation Surface 96
Vertebrate Remains 97
Mammoth 97
Bison 103
Canids 103
Rodents 103
Hearths 104
Artifacts 104
Bifaces 104
Unifaces 106
Utilized Flakes 106
Cobble Hammers and Manuports 107
Lithic Debris 107
Obsidian Nodules 108
Bone Tool and Worked Bone 109
Mammoth Processing 111
Bone Distribution 111
Butchering Sequence and Utilization 111
Bison Processing 112
Overview of Area 3 112
The Multiple Bison Kill, Area 4 114
Occupation Surface 114
Bison Remains in Area 4 114
Bone Preservation 115
Number of Individuals 118
Species and Size 119
Age Composition 119
Other Vertebrate Remains 120
Cultural Remains 120
Hearths and Depressions 120
Projectile Points and Lithic Tools 121
Bone Tool 124
Flaked Lithic Debris 124
Bison Processing and Utilization 125
Bone Distribution and Butchering Sequence 125
Cooking and Rendering 127
Meat and By-product Yield 127
Processing Task Unit 128
Procurement 128
The Horse Kill, Area 5 129
Clovis Occupation Surface of Area 5 131
Vertebrate Remains 131
Horse 131
Artifacts 132
Projectile Points 132
Bifaces 132
Uniface 132
Utilized Flake 134
Pebble Hammer and Manuports 134
Flaked Lithic Debris 134
Overview of Area 5 135
Conclusions 136
6. BISON AGES FROM DENTITIONS AT THE MURRAY SPRINGS CLOVIS SITE, ARIZONA 138
Michael C. Wilson, Lawrence C. Todd, and George C. Frison
Dentitions 138
Group 1 (0.7 to 0.8 Year) 139
Group 2 (1.8 Years) 139
Group 3 (2.7 to 2.8 Years) 139
Group 4 (3.7 to 3.8 Years) 142
Group 5 (4.7 to 4.8 Years) 142
Group 6 (5.7 to 5.8 Years) 143
Group 6+ 143
Radius 143
Conclusions 143
7. THE HUNTING CAMP AT MURRAY SPRINGS 146
Larry D. Agenbroad and Bruce B. Huckell
Preliminary Investigations, 1969 146
Area 7, 1970 148
Areas 6 and 7, 1971 149
Discussion 155
Clovis Artifacts from Areas 6 and 7 155
Bifacially Flaked Implements 155
Projectile Points 155
Bifaces 156
Unifacially Retouched Implements 157
End Scrapers 158
Gravers 159
Laterally Retouched Flake Tools 159
Blades and Blade Tools 160
Retouched Blades 160
Utilized Blades 161
Blade Fragments 161
Clovis Cores 162
Obsidian Nodule 162
Clovis Debitage 162
Archaic Period and Younger Artifacts 164
Archaic Period Bifacially
Flaked Artifacts 164
Projectile Points 164
Bifaces 165
Archaic Period Unifacially
Retouched Pieces 166
Archaic Period Cores 166
Archaic Period Debitage 166
Artifacts of Uncertain Age 166
Debitage of Uncertain Age 167
Ground Stone Artifacts 167
Pottery 168
Overview of Areas 6 and 7 168
8. CLOVIS LITHIC TECHNOLOGY: A VIEW FROM THE UPPER SAN PEDRO VALLEY 170
Bruce B. Huckell
Debitage from Murray Springs 171
Methods of Study 171
Cluster Descriptions 172
Area 1 and Area 1 Extension 173
Area 2 174
Area 3 174
Area 3 Extension 176
Area 4 177
Area 5 178
Flakes Not Assigned to Clusters 179
Discussion 179
Area 6 and Area 7 180
Flakes Not Assigned to Clusters 184
Discussion 184
Clovis Flint Knapping at Murray Springs 184
The Clovis Industry 185
Raw Material Sources 186
The Biface Mode 189
Bifaces 189
Projectile Points 194
Clovis Point Production 197
Clovis Point Repair 199
The Flake and Flake Tool Mode 201
Laterally Retouched Flakes 203
Composite Flake Tool 204
Gravers 204
End Scrapers 204
Unretouched Implements 205
The Blade and Blade Tool Mode 205
Blade Technology 208
The Expediency Mode 209
Discussion 210
9. CLOVIS PALEOECOLOGY AS VIEWED FROM MURRAY SPRINGS, ARIZONA 214
Bruce B. Huckell and
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
Clovis Diet: Specialists, Generalists, Or Other? 215
Theoretical Perspectives on
Large Mammal Hunting 215
Clovis Subsistence in the San
Pedro Valley 217
African Elephant Behavior and
Implications for Mammoth
Hunting 218
Weaponry Design and
Technological Organization 219
Subsistence Strategies 221
Clovis Land Use and Mobility 221
Clovis Site Structure in the
San Pedro Valley 222
Lithic Raw Material Evidence 222
Extinction and Murray Springs 224
Evidence from the San Pedro Valley 224
Extinction and the Black Mat 225
AFTERWORD
Does the Past have a Future at
Murray Springs? 226
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
APPENDIX A. Radiocarbon Dating at
Murray Springs and Curry Draw 229
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
Standard A-B-A Pretreatment 229
Dating the Clovis Occupation 230
Multiple Fraction Radiocarbon Dating of the Black Mat (F2) 231
Dating the Coro Marl 237
Dating the Sobaipuri Member 237
Conclusions 239
APPENDIX B. Nature and Origin of the
Black Mat, Stratum F2 240
C. Vance Haynes, Jr., with Contributors
Chemical Evaluation of the Black Mat
Deposit at Murray Springs 242
(Raymond N. Rogers)
Pyrolytic Gas Chromatographic Mass
Spectrometry Analysis 245
(Artur Staniekwicz and Erik Tegelaar)
13C-NMR Spectral Analyses of the
Black Mat Samples (Jerry A Leenheer) 247
Overview 247
APPENDIX C. Sources of Obsidian at the
Murray Springs Clovis Site: A Semi-quantitative X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 
250
M. Steven Shackley
Instrument Methodology and
Source Description 250
The Cow Canyon Source 251
Discussion 252
APPENDIX D. Vertebrate Specimens
from Murray Springs Areas 1¿5 255
E. Thomas Hemmings
Areas 1, 3, 4, 5, 255
Area 2 263
APPENDIX E. Geological and Archaeological
Investigations at Murray Springs, Area 9 and Trench 13N 266
Bruce B. Huckell and
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
Background to the Research 266
Testing in Area 9 267
Black Mat Testing at Trench 13N and Area 9 269
Summary and Conclusions 270
APPENDIX F. Identification Numbers of Illustrated Artifacts from the Murray 
Springs Site 273
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
APPENDIX G. Murray Springs Project
Field Personnel, Volunteers, and Site Visitors 276
C. Vance Haynes, Jr.
REFERENCES 279
INDEX 299
ABSTRACT, RESUMEN 307
COLOR ILLUSTRATIONS
Following page 48 
Plate 1. Topographic map of the Murray Springs Clovis Site as of 1998
Plate 2. Stratigraphic column and 14C chronology of Curry Draw correlated with 
earlier stratigraphic designations
Plate 3. Photogeologic map of the Murray Springs Clovis Site area
Plate 4. Stratigraphic profiles of Trenches 1, 9, and 24
Plate 5. Stratigraphic profile of the north wall of the South Branch of Curry 
Draw
Plate 6. Stratigraphic profiles H, I, and J in Area 2
Plate 7. Stratigraphic profiles D, C, G, and N in Area 1 
Plate 8. Paleogeologic map of the Clovis-age surface
Foldout 1. Stratigraphic profiles of Trenches 4, 15¿19, 21, 22, and 25
Foldout 2. Stratigraphic profiles of Trenches 10¿14, 20, 26¿28, 32, and line 
X of Area 3
Following page 176
Plate 9. Distribution of flake clusters within the Area 3¿2 knapping locus
Plate 10. Distribution of flake clusters within the Area 3¿3 knapping locus
FIGURES
1.1. Map of southeastern Arizona showing
 the San Pedro River Valley from Mexico
 to the confluence with the Gila River 2
1.2. Map of the upper San Pedro Valley from
 Mexico to Benson, Arizona, showing
 locations of sites and grass circles 3
1.3. Topographic map of the Murray Springs
 site showing excavation areas, strati-
 graphic trenches, and profile locations 4
1.4. Views of Murray Springs Areas 1 and 2 7
1.5. The mammoth skeleton in Area 3 8
1.6. Views of Murray Springs Areas 1 and 3 9
1.7. Views of Murray Springs Areas 1 and 3 10
1.8. Views of Murray Springs Areas 4, 5,
 and 6 11
1.9. Views of Murray Springs Areas, 3, 4,
 5, and 7 12
1.10. Views of Murray Springs Area 8 13
1.11. Views of Murray Springs Area 8 14
1.12. Fossil teeth from Area 8 discovery
 trench on National Geographic
 Society flag 14
2.1. Time-stratigraphic column for the
 St. David Formation of the San
 Pedro Valley 17
2.2. Map of the Curry Draw area showing
 the Murray Springs Site, trenches, and
 grass-floored circular depressions 18
2.3. Shaded relief map of the
 Murray Springs Site 19
2.4. Aerial views of the Curry Draw area 20
2.5. Generalized geologic cross section of
 Curry Draw at the Murray Springs Site 21
2.6. Views of special features of the 
 Curry Draw area 22
2.7. Part of the San Rafael de Valle grant
 mapped in 1902 by Philip Contzen 23
2.8. Views of some modern environments 25
2.9. Aerial photographs of Curry Draw
 during a 67¿year interval 26
2.10. Arroyo stratigraphy of the Escapule
 Ranch Formation in Curry Draw 29
2.11. Coro marl (Stratum E) type section at
 Profile A in the north wall of the
 South Branch 33
2.12. Detailed stratigraphic profiles of the
 Graveyard sand channel (Stratum F1)
in the north wall of the South Branch
 (Profile B) of Curry Draw 35
2.13. Photographic panorama of the F1
 channel at Profile B, close-up of the
 F1 channel sand, and proboscidean
 long bone in Stratum D2 36
2.14. Large pieces of charcoal in the top of
 the F1 channel sand in Area 2 36
2.15. African elephants digging water holes
 at Wankie Reserve, Zambia 37
2.16. Views of the Clanton Ranch Member
 (black mat) F2a and the Earp Marl
 Member F2b facies 38
2.17. Map of Area 8 showing anomalous
 features associated with Conduit 2 43
2.18. Profile of bioturbation in Area 7 44
2.19. Close-up view of the black mat and
 Donnet silt (F2 and F3) 45
2.20. Geologic cross section of the
 Graveyard sand channel (F1)
 and the Donnet Ranch channel
 (F3a) in Trench 22 47
3.1. Shrub species characteristic of the
 Chihuahuan Desert surrounding
 Curry Draw 58
3.2. Curry Draw, with mesquites and
 rabbitbrush 58
3.3. Willows and cottonwoods in
 Curry Draw 58
3.4. Woodcutter Draw, a drainage
 on the Whetstone surface 58
3.5. Generalized cross section of the natural
 vegetation and its edaphic controls in
 the lower San Pedro Valley near
 Curry Draw 59
4.1. Map of southeastern Arizona and
 adjacent areas of New Mexico
 and Sonora, Mexico 62
4.2. Babocomari (Brophy) Cienega
 showing ponding and nearby
 marsh area 64
4.3. Sheehy Springs, San Rafael Valley,
 showing the plains grassland to
 desert grassland surrounding the
 narrow cienega 64
4.4. Sphaeriid clam habitat at the gravel-
 bottomed pond at Sheehy Springs 67
4.5. Pond and shore habitats surrounded
 by an encinal (oak) woodland at
 Sylvania Springs, Huachuca Mountains 67
4.6. Map of Curry Draw at the Murray
 Springs Site showing molluscan and
 Pollen Profile sample locations 69
4.7. Generalized cross section of Curry
 Draw at Murray Springs showing
 the stratigraphic positions of the
 19 molluscan matrix samples 69
4.8. Scanning electron microscope photo-
 graphs of fossil molluscs 74
4.9. Simpson's faunal similarity index used
 to compare modern molluscan assem-
 blages with fossil assemblages 77
4.10. Graph illustrating the changes in number
 of aquatic and terrestrial molluscs for
 the stratigraphic layers at the Murray
 Springs Site 80
5.1. View across the South Branch of Curry
 Draw at the Murray Springs Site 87
5.2. Mammoth remains in Area 2 87
5.3. Distribution of remains in Area 1 88¿89
5.4. Distribution of remains in Area 2 90¿91
5.5. Mammoth remains from Areas 1 and 2 92
5.6. Bison upper left forelimb from Area 2 93
5.7. Distribution of remains in Area 3 98¿99
5.8. Distribution of remains in Area 3
 Extension and Area 1 Extension 100¿101
5.9. Excavation of the occupation
 surface in Area 3 102
5.10. Mammoth tracks on a low-lying part
 of the occupation surface in Area 3 102
5.11. Partial carcass of a mammoth on a high
 part of the occupation surface in Area 3 102
5.12. Mammoth upper molars from Area 3 103
5.13. Lithic artifacts from Area 3 105
5.14. Lithic artifacts from Area 3,
 reverse sides 105
5.15. Debitage from Area 3 108
5.16. Marekanite nodules from Area 3 109
5.17. Mammoth bone shaft straightener
 from Area 3 110
5.18. Worked bison long bone fragment 111
5.19. Distribution of remains in Area 4 116¿117
5.20. Bison skeletal elements from Area 4 118
5.21. Bison skeletal material from Area 4 118
5.22. Lithic artifacts from Area 4 122
5.23. Lithic artifacts from Area 4, reverse sides 122
5.24. Cobble hammer from Area 4 124
5.25. Worked bone gaming(?) piece and
 burned bone from Area 4 124
5.26. Utilized flakes and debitage
 from Area 4 125
5.27. Distribution of remains in Area 5 130
5.28. Lingual view of upper and lower
 right cheek teeth of the horse
 from Area 5 131
5.29. Lithic artifacts from Area 5 133
5.30. Lithic artifacts from Area 5, reverse sides 133
6.1. Bison lower dentitions from Murray
 Springs compared with dentitions
 from the Hawken Site 141
6.2. Age Group 3 bison lower dentitions
 from Murray Springs, Area 4 142
6.3. Age Group 5 bison lower dentitions
 from Murray Springs, Area 4 142
6.4. Age Group 6 and Group 6+ bison
 lower dentitions from Murray
 Springs, Area 4 143
7.1. Murray Springs Site area showing
 excavated portions of Areas 6 and 7 147
7.2. Portions of Area 7 cleared, swept,
 and excavated showing the grid
 system and subgrid designations 148
7.3. Excavated pits that may have been
 Archaic period wells in Area 7 150
7.4. Distribution of remains in Area 6 151
7.5. Distribution of remains in Area 7 152¿153
7.6. Paleotopographic map of
 Areas 6 and 7 154
7.7. Clovis bifacial artifacts from
 Areas 6 and 7 157
7.8. Clovis unifacial artifacts from
 Areas 6 and 7 158
7.9. Clovis blade tools from Areas 6
 and 7 160
7.10. Archaic period artifacts from
 Areas 6 and 7 165
8.1. Locations of Clovis knapping loci in
 Areas 3, 4, 5, and the extensions
 of Area 1 and Area 3 172
8.2. Locations of Clovis and Archaic
 knapping loci in Areas 6 and 7 181
8.3. Schematic diagram showing Clovis
 lithic technological organization 186
8.4. Refitted flake groups that allow
 measurement of biface widths 190
8.5. Histogram of biface widths from
 refitted flake groups and
 biface fragments 191
8.6. Complete and fragmentary bifaces
 from Murray Springs 196
8.7. Clovis points and fragments from
 Murray Springs 196
8.8. Clovis points and fragments from
 Murray Springs 196
8.9. Clovis point breakage and repair
 options based on specimens from
 the San Pedro Valley 200
8.10. Unifacially retouched flake tools
 from Murray Springs 202
8.11. Composite flake tool from
 Murray Springs 204
8.12. Clovis retouched and utilized blade
 tools from Murray Springs 206
8.13. Clovis large blade tools and
 possible blades from Murray Springs 207
8.14. Clovis expedient tools from
 Murray Springs 210
A.1. Detailed stratigraphy of interbedded
 Clanton clay stringers and Earp marl at
 Trench 13N and Trench 18 in Area 8 236
A.2. Type section of the Coro member at
 Profile A showing locations of
molluscan samples, carbonate radio-
 carbon ages and Profile Y 238
B.1. Pond clays just under the black mat,
 showing shrinkage cracks on the
 Clovis surface 242
B.2. Sample 18AZ94 pyrolysed at 800ºC
 for 10 seconds 246
B.3. 13C-NMR Spectrum of the black mat 248
C.1. Archaeological obsidian sources in
 the Southwest 251
C.2. Ternary plot for Southwestern net
 intensity obsidian data 252
C.3. Net intensity peak count bivariate
 plot of Cow Canyon source material
 and Murray Springs obsidian
 artifacts 254
E.1. Locations of Area 9 and Trench 13N
 black mat sampling area 267
E.2. Distribution of horse teeth and
 bone fragments in Area 9 268
E.3. Murray Springs Trench 13N
 stratigraphic profile with 14C
 sample locations numbered 270
E.4. Murray Springs Area 9 headcut
 stratigraphic profile and micro
 stratigraphic columns A and B
 for sediment sampling 271
TABLES
4.1. Murray Springs Site fossil assemblage
 and the present indigenous molluscs
 of the upper San Pedro Valley 65
4.2. Molluscan assemblages from three
 springs in southeastern Arizona 70
4.3. Murray Springs Site molluscs
 that are either absent or now
 inhabiting oak woodland to
 oak-pine woodland 70
5.1. Variation between knapping areas and
 general surface collection from Area 3 109
5.2. Estimated weights and percents of
 carcass weight of body parts, organs,
 and contents of a 5,450 kg
 mammoth cow 112
5.3. Comparison of observ ed numbers of
 skeletal elements with original numbers
 in eleven bison from Area 4 115
5.4. Age estimates for ten bison lower
 dentitions from Area 4 119
5.5 Illustrated Clovis lithic tools and
 debitaage from Murray Springs,
 Area 4 and Area 5 121
5.6. Estimated weights of body parts,
 organs, and contents in eleven
 bison from Murray Springs,
 Area 4 128
6.1. Bison lower dentitions from Area 4 139
6.2. Measurements of lower bison teeth
 from the Murray Springs Site 140
6.3. Measurement of radius from the
 Murray Springs Site 144
7.1. Fire-cracked rock concentrations
 in Areas 6 and 7 150
7.2. Clovis artifacts from the Murray
 Springs camp, Areas 6 and 7 156
7.3. Cultural and material attributes of
 debitage from the Murray Springs 
 camp, Areas 6 and 7 163
7.4. Archaic period and younger artifacts
 from the Murray Springs camp,
 Areas 6 and 7 164
8.1. Attributes of the Murray Springs
 flake clusters 173
8.2. Flakes not assigned to clusters in
 Areas 1, 3, 4, and 5 179
8.3. Flakes not assigned to c lusters in Area 7 184
8.4. Major raw materials identified from
 knapping loci at Murray Springs 187
8.5. Biface widths from distally
 overlapping flake groups 189
8.6. Measurements of bifaces and biface
 fragments from Murray Springs 191
8.7. Attributes of nineteen Murray
 Springs Clovis Points 195
8.8. Attributes of twenty-three unifacially
 retouched flake tools from Murray
 Springs 201
8.9. Attributes of thirteen blades and
 blade tools from Murray Springs 205
A.1. Curry Draw radiocarbon ages
 arranged stratigraphically by
 locality 232¿235
A.2. Multifraction radiocarbon ages
 of Clanton clay and Earp marl
 microstrata in Trench 13 North
 and Trench 18, Area 8 235
B.1. Analysis of black map samples
 from Trench 18, Area 8 241
B.2. Atomic absorption analysis of
 black mat 241
B.3. Chemical composition of the
 acid-soluble component of
 the black mat 241
C.1. X-ray fluorescence data for obsidian
 specimens from the Murray Springs
 Clovis Site 253
C.2. Rb, Sr, Zr and Rb, Nb, Zr X-ray
 fluorescence data for the Cow
 Canyon obsidian source, Arizona 253