List of Illustrations
List of Exhibits
List of Tables
Preface
Part I Fundamentals of Metadata
ONE Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Definitions
1.3 A Brief History
1.4 Types and Functions
1.5 Standards
1.6 Principles
1.7 Examples of Metadata Descriptions
1.8 Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises
TWO Understanding Metadata Vocabularies
2.1 Metadata Element Sets
2.1.1 Components and Structures—An Overview
2.1.2 Flat Structure
2.1.2.1 Dublin Core Metadata Element Set
2.1.2.2 VRA Core 3.0
2.1.3 Nested Structure
2.1.3.1 VRA Core 4.0
2.2 Application Profiles
2.2.1 The Concept of Application Profile (AP)
2.2.2 Examples of APs Consisting of Elements Drawn from Other Schemas
2.2.3 Sources of Reusable Elements
2.3 Ontologies as Metadata Vocabularies
2.3.1 Background
2.3.2 Modular Structure
2.3.3 Friend of a Friend (FOAF)
2.3.4 Schema.org
2.4 RDF Vocabularies for Metadata Terms
2.4.1 An Introduction to RDF (Resource Description Framework)
2.4.2 DCMI Metadata Terms
2.4.3 Metadata Descriptions: From “Records” to “Statements”
2.5 Conclusion
Suggested Readings
Exercises
THREE Creating Metadata Descriptions
3.1 Requirements for Metadata
3.2 Basic Unit of Metadata
3.2.1 Metadata Statement, Description, and Description Set
3.2.2 Relationships between Resources
3.3 Knowing the Difference
3.4 Levels of Granularity
3.4.1 Describing Individual Items That Constitute a Collection: Item-Level Description
3.4.2 Describing the Entirety of a Collection: Collection-Level Description
3.4.3 Dataset-Level Metadata
3.4.4 Resource Decomposition
3.5 Metadata Sources
3.5.1 Manual Generation of Metadata
3.5.2 Automatic Generation of Metadata
3.5.3 Combination of Manual and Automatic Methods
3.5.4 Harvested Metadata
3.5.5 Converted Metadata
3.5.6 User-Contributed Metadata
3.6 Metadata Storage
3.6.1 Internal Storage
3.6.2 External Storage
3.7 Expressing Metadata
3.7.1 HTML
3.7.1.1 Embedded in the <head> Section
3.7.1.2 Embedded in the <body> Section
3.7.2 XML
3.7.3 RDF/XML and Other RDF Serialization Formats
3.8 Linkage, Wrapper, Display, and Parallel Metadata
3.8.1 Linking between Descriptions for Different Resources
3.8.2 Wrapping
3.8.3 Encoding for Display
3.8.4 Encoding for Bilingual Metadata Statements
3.9 Combining Metadata Descriptions and Linking Resources
3.9.1 METS
3.9.2 One RDF/XML Document Containing Multiple “Resource” Descriptions
3.9.3 Aggregation
3.10 Conclusion
Suggested Readings
Advanced Readings
Exercises
Part II Metadata Vocabulary Building Blocks
FOUR Metadata Structures and Semantics
4.1 Modeling for Metadata
4.1.1 Entity-Relationship Modeling
4.1.2 Ontological Modeling
4.1.3 Encapsulated and Modularized Approaches
4.2 Enumerating Metadata Terms
4.2.1 Communicating about the Functional Requirements
4.2.2 Identifying Desired Elements
4.3 Metadata Vocabulary/Element Set Specification
4.3.1 Basic Components
4.3.2 Presentation
4.3.3 Principles for an Element Set to Follow
4.3.4 Methodologies for Working from an Existing Element Set
4.3.5 Testing the Element Set
4.4 Value Spaces and Value Vocabularies
4.4.1 Value Spaces That Should Follow Standardized Syntax Encoding Rules
4.4.2 Value Spaces That Require Standardized Vocabulary Encoding Schemes
4.4.2.1 Standardized Codes
4.4.2.2 Controlled Vocabularies
4.4.2.3 Name Authorities
4.4.3 Value Spaces That Require Predefined Lists of Terms
4.4.3.1 Why Predefined Lists of Terms Are Needed
4.4.3.2 How to Develop a Predefined List of Terms
4.4.3.3 How to Handle Authority Lists for Named and Unnamed Entities
4.5 Crosswalks
4.5.1 Methods Used in Crosswalking
4.5.2 Aligning Elements with Indicators of Matching Degrees
4.6 Best Practices Guides and Other Content Guidelines
4.6.1 Best Practices Guides
4.6.2 Scheme/Vocabulary-Specific Guidelines
4.6.3 Community-Oriented Best Practices Guides
4.6.4 Data Content Standards
4.7 Conclusion
Suggested Readings
Exercises
FIVE Metadata Schemas
5.1 Background
5.2 Resource Identification
5.3 Namespaces
5.4 Schema Encoding
5.4.1 Relational Schema
5.4.2 XML Schema
5.4.3 Schema Encoding in Mixed Namespaces
5.5 Encoding Examples of Metadata Vocabularies
5.5.1 Dublin Core Schemas
5.5.2 EAD3 XML Schema
5.6 Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises
Part III Metadata Services
SIX Metadata Services
6.1 Metadata Services as an Infrastructure
6.2 Metadata Registries
6.2.1 Functional Requirements
6.2.2 Types
6.2.3 Essential Components
6.3 Metadata Repositories
6.3.1 Features and Approaches
6.3.2 Metadata Harvesting Model
6.3.3 Support for Multiple Description Formats in OAI-PMH
6.4 Metadata as Linked Data
6.4.1 WHAT: Linked Data Principles
6.4.2 WHY: Understanding the Situations—Metadata in Information Silos
6.4.3 WHO: Two Roles of LAMs and Information Institutions
6.4.4 WHERE: Discovering the Factors Inhibiting LAM Data’s Linkability
6.4.5 WHEN: Taking Actions in Different Steps/Phases for Different Situations
6.4.6 HOW: Applicable Methods and Strategies
6.4.6.1 Using KOS as the Connectors of Linked Datasets
6.4.6.2 Enriching the Structured Data Created as “Access Points”
6.4.6.3 Creating Linked Data from Semi-structured Data
6.4.6.4 Creating LOD from Unstructured Data
6.4.7 Moving Forward
6.5 Ensuring Optimal Metadata Discovery and Increasing Findability
6.5.1 Metadata Retrieval
6.5.2 Metadata Exposure Methods
6.5.2.1 Serving Human Users with Innovative Ideas
6.5.2.2 Exposing Data to Aggregators and Search Engines
6.5.2.3 Exposing Metadata via API and Web Services
6.5.2.4 Providing User-Friendly SPARQL Endpoints
6.5.2.5 Providing Effective, Code-Free Data Exploration and Analysis Tools
6.6 Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises
SEVEN Metadata Quality Measurement and Improvement
7.1 Quality of Metadata
7.2 Meeting the Functional Requirements
7.3 Quality Measurement with Different Granularities
7.4 Metadata Quality Measurement Indicators: CCCD
7.4.1 Completeness
7.4.2 Correctness
7.4.3 Consistency
7.4.4 Duplication Analysis
7.5 Metadata Evaluation
7.6 Enhancing Quality of Metadata
7.7 Entity-Level Quality for Reusable Metadata
7.7.1 Reusability
7.7.2 Actions for Providing Shareable and Reusable Datasets
7.8 New Challenges and Demands
7.8.1 Longevity of Metadata Vocabularies
7.8.2 Unique Identifiers
7.8.3 FAIRness Assessment for Open (Meta)data Repositories
7.9 Conclusion
Suggested Readings
Exercises
EIGHT Achieving Interoperability
8.1 Interoperability Layers
8.2 Metadata Decisions at Different Stages of a Digital Collection Project
8.3 Achieving Interoperability at the Schema Development Stage
8.3.1 Derivation
8.3.2 Application Profiles (APs)
8.3.3 Crosswalks
8.3.4 Frameworks
8.3.4.1 Europeana Data Model (EDM)
8.3.4.2 International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF)
8.3.5 Metadata Schema Registries
8.4 Achieving Interoperability at the Record Generation Stage
8.4.1 Conversion of Metadata Records
8.4.2 Data Reuse and Integration
8.5 Achieving Interoperability at the Metadata Repository Operation Stage
8.5.1 Metadata Repositories Based on the Open Archives Initiative (OAI) Protocol
8.5.2 Metadata Repositories Supporting Multiple Formats without Record Conversion
8.5.3 Aggregation and Enriched Metadata Records in a Repository
8.5.4 Element-Based and Value-Based Crosswalking Services
8.5.5 Value-Based Mapping for Cross-Database Searching
8.5.6 Value-Based Co-occurrence Mapping
8.6 Alignment Approaches Used for Linked Data
8.6.1 The Need for Alignment of Metadata Vocabularies
8.6.2 Alignment at Class Level
8.6.3 Alignment at Property Level
8.6.4 Mapping Degrees
8.7 Unifying Heterogeneous Contents in a Distributed Data Creation Environment
8.8 Conclusion
Suggested Readings
Exercises
Part IV Metadata Outlook in Research
NINE Metadata Research Landscape
9.1 Overview
9.2 Research in Metadata Architecture
9.3 Research in Metadata Modeling
9.4 Research in Metadata Semantics
9.5 Metadata and Data-Driven X
9.6 Conclusions
Suggested Readings
Exercise
Part V Metadata Standards
TEN Current Standards
10.1 Metadata for General Purposes
10.1.1 Dublin Core
10.1.2 MODS and the MARC Family
10.1.2.1 The Reasons for MARC Transformation
10.1.2.2 MARCXML
10.1.2.3 Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS)
10.1.3 BIBFRAME Vocabulary
10.2 Metadata for Cultural Objects and Visual Resources
10.2.1 Introduction to CDWA
10.2.2 Important Concepts
10.2.3 Element Sets of CCO, CDWA Lite, LIDO, and VRA Core
10.2.3.1 CCO (Cataloging of Cultural Objects)
10.2.3.2 CDWA Lite and LIDO
10.2.3.3 VRA Core Categories
10.2.4 Object ID Checklist
10.2.5 Value Vocabularies
10.3 Metadata for Research Data
10.3.1 Overview
10.3.2 Metadata Standards for Open Science Data
10.3.2.1 Data Catalog Vocabulary (DCAT)
10.3.2.2 DCAT Application Profiles
10.3.3 Metadata Standards for Geospatial Data
10.3.4 Metadata Standards for Biodiversity and Ecology Data
10.3.5 Metadata for Social Sciences Research Data
10.3.6 Other Developments
10.4 Metadata for Archives
10.4.1 Background
10.4.2 Finding Aid Examples
10.4.3 EAD 2002 at a Glance
10.4.4 EAC-CPF
10.4.5 EAD3
10.4.6 Related Standards
10.5 Rights Management Metadata
10.5.1 Rights Metadata Elements for User-Oriented Rights Information
10.5.2 Metadata Activities of Rights-Holder Communities
10.5.2.1 DOI (Digital Object Identifier)
10.5.3 Open Digital Rights Language (ODRL)
10.6 Metadata for Publishing and Press Communications
10.6.1 ONIX (ONline Information eXchange)
10.6.2 EPUB
10.6.3 IPTC Metadata Standards
10.7 Metadata for Multimedia Objects
10.7.1 The MPEG Standards
10.7.2 MPEG-7
10.7.3 ID3v2
10.7.4 Pibcorn, the Public Broadcasting Metadata Dictionary
10.8 Preservation and Provenance Metadata
10.8.1 Digital Preservation Metadata Standards
10.8.2 OAIS Reference Model
10.8.3 Preservation Metadata: Implementation Strategies (PREMIS)
10.8.4 Preservation Metadata and Other Related Standards
10.8.5 PROV for Provenance Interchange on the Web
10.8.6 DCMI Metadata Terms for Provenance
10.9 Metadata Describing Agents
10.9.1 vCard
10.9.2 FOAF (Friend of a Friend)
10.10 Summary
Suggested Readings
Exercises
Appendixes: The following appendixes are available online only.
A Metadata Standards: Metadata Schemas, Application Profiles, and Registries
B Value Encoding Schemes and Content Standards
Glossary
References
About the Authors
Index
