Energy for Sustainability, Second Edition: Foundations for Technology, Planning, and Policy
by John Randolph and Gilbert M. Masters
Island Press, 2018
eISBN: 978-1-61091-821-3 | Cloth: 978-1-61091-820-6
Library of Congress Classification TJ808.R36 2018
Dewey Decimal Classification 333.79
eISBN: 978-1-61091-821-3 | Cloth: 978-1-61091-820-6
Library of Congress Classification TJ808.R36 2018
Dewey Decimal Classification 333.79
ABOUT THIS BOOK | AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY | TOC | REQUEST ACCESSIBLE FILE
ABOUT THIS BOOK
Despite a 2016-18 glut in fossil fuel markets and decade-low fuel prices, the global transformation to sustainable energy is happening. Our ongoing energy challenges and solutions are complex and multidimensional, involving science, technology, design, economics, finance, planning, policy, politics, and social movements.
The most comprehensive book on this topic, Energy for Sustainability has been the go-to resource for courses. This new edition has been thoroughly revised and updated to inform and guide students and practitioners who will steer this transformation.
Drawing on a combined 80 years of teaching experience, John Randolph and Gilbert Masters take a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. Energy for Sustainability can help techies and policymakers alike understand the mechanisms required to enable conversion to energy that is clean, affordable, and secure. Major revisions to this edition reflect the current changes in technology and energy use and focus on new analyses, data, and methods necessary to understand and actively participate in the transition to sustainable energy.
The book begins with energy literacy, including patterns and trends, before covering the fundamentals of energy related to physics, engineering, and economics. The next parts explore energy technologies and opportunities in three important energy sectors: buildings, electricity, and transportation. The final section focuses on policy and planning, presenting the critical role of public policy and consumer and investor choice in transforming energy markets to greater sustainability. Throughout the book, methods for energy and economic analysis and design give readers a quantitative appreciation for and understanding of energy systems. The book uses case studies extensively to demonstrate current experience and illustrate possibilities.
Students will gain an understanding of what it takes to achieve clean, affordable, sustainable energy. Supplemental materials are available at www.islandpress.org/energy
The most comprehensive book on this topic, Energy for Sustainability has been the go-to resource for courses. This new edition has been thoroughly revised and updated to inform and guide students and practitioners who will steer this transformation.
Drawing on a combined 80 years of teaching experience, John Randolph and Gilbert Masters take a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. Energy for Sustainability can help techies and policymakers alike understand the mechanisms required to enable conversion to energy that is clean, affordable, and secure. Major revisions to this edition reflect the current changes in technology and energy use and focus on new analyses, data, and methods necessary to understand and actively participate in the transition to sustainable energy.
The book begins with energy literacy, including patterns and trends, before covering the fundamentals of energy related to physics, engineering, and economics. The next parts explore energy technologies and opportunities in three important energy sectors: buildings, electricity, and transportation. The final section focuses on policy and planning, presenting the critical role of public policy and consumer and investor choice in transforming energy markets to greater sustainability. Throughout the book, methods for energy and economic analysis and design give readers a quantitative appreciation for and understanding of energy systems. The book uses case studies extensively to demonstrate current experience and illustrate possibilities.
Students will gain an understanding of what it takes to achieve clean, affordable, sustainable energy. Supplemental materials are available at www.islandpress.org/energy
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
John Randolph is Professor Emeritus of Environmental Planning at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He is former director of Virginia Tech’s School of Public and International Affairs and the Virginia Center for Coal and Energy Research. He received the William R. and June Dale Prize for Excellence in Urban and Regional Planning and is the author of Environmental Land Use Planning and Management from Island Press, now in its second edition (2012).
Gilbert M. Masters is the MAP (Emeritus) Professor of Sustainable Energy in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Stanford University. His focus is on energy efficiency and renewable energy systems as keys to slowing global warming, enhancing energy security, and increasing access to energy services in less developed parts of the world. He is author or co-author of a number of books, including Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, now in its second edition (2013) and Introduction to Engineering and Science, now in its third edition (2008).
Gilbert M. Masters is the MAP (Emeritus) Professor of Sustainable Energy in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Stanford University. His focus is on energy efficiency and renewable energy systems as keys to slowing global warming, enhancing energy security, and increasing access to energy services in less developed parts of the world. He is author or co-author of a number of books, including Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, now in its second edition (2013) and Introduction to Engineering and Science, now in its third edition (2008).
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgments
Section I: Energy Patterns and Trends
Chapter 1: The Energy Imperative and Patterns of Use
1.1 Our Energy Dilemma
1.2 Historical Perspective: Energy and Civilization
1.3 Global Energy Supply and Consumption
1.3.1 Explosive Growth of Energy as Developing World Begins to Catch Up
1.3.2 Continuing Dependency on Oil and Fossil Fuels
1.4 U.S. Energy Supply and Consumption
1.4.1 U.S. Energy Independence? Production Up, Consumption Flat, Imports Down
1.4.2 U.S. Energy Cleaner, More Efficient, More Independent Since 2007, but a Long Way to Go
1.5 Summary
1.5.1 Sustainable Energy: Improve Efficiency, Reduce Carbon, Replace Oil
Chapter 2: Energy Sources and Sustainability
2.1 Criteria for Sustainable Energy
2.2 Resource Limits of Fossil Fuels
2.2.1 Peak Oil Debate Revisited: Will the Peak Be Driven by Production or Consumption?
2.2.2 Natural Gas: Shale Gas Technology Extends Future Supplies but for How Long?
2.2.3 Coal More Plentiful but Constrained by Environmental Impacts
2.3 Environmental Limits of Fossil Fuels
2.3.1 Climate Change and Energy
2.3.2 Local and Regional Air Pollution
2.3.3 Fuel Extraction, Transport, and Other Impacts
2.4 Nuclear Power: Once Great Hope, Now in Decline
2.5 The Transition to Clean Energy Is Happening: Efficiency and Renewables
2.5.1 Energy Efficiency Is Making a Difference with More on the Way
2.5.2 Renewable Energy Growing Fast but Still Small Contribution
2.6 Summary
Chapter 3: Energy Futures
3.1 The Complexities of Our Changing Energy System
3.2 Planning and Visioning the Future
3.2.1 Projections and Forecasts
3.2.2 Technology Roadmaps
3.2.3 Needs Assessment and Solution Wedges
3.2.4 Developing Scenarios
3.3 Officialdom’s Vision of Our Energy Future: U.S. EIA and IEA Outlooks
3.3.1 U.S. EIA Annual Energy Outlook 2017: BAU
3.3.2 EIA International Energy Outlook
3.3.3 IEA World Energy Outlook 2016 Central Case
3.4 Future Energy Scenarios: Different Assumptions, Different Pathways, Different Futures
3.4.1 IEA’s WEO 2015: Visions of Desired Future Conditions
3.4.2 IPCC/UNFCCC Future Scenarios
3.5 Possible Energy Futures: Roadmaps to Sustainable Energy
3.5.1 Amory Lovins’s Reinventing Fire
3.5.2 NREL Renewables Futures Study: 80% Renewable U.S. Electricity by 2050
3.5.3 Pathways to Deep Decarbonization in the United States
3.5.4 The 100% Solution Project: Wind, Water, and Sun Can Do It All
3.6 Show Me the Money! Energy Market Forces and Investment Scenarios
3.6.1 Energy Investment and Divestment
3.6.2 Citigroup Forecast: Energy Darwinism II
3.6.3 BNEF Energy Outlook
3.7 Summary
Section II: Energy Fundamentals
Chapter 4: Energy Fundamentals
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basics of Energy Science
4.2.1 Introduction to the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
4.2.2 A Word About Units
4.2.3 The Distinction Between Energy and Power
4.3 Mechanical Energy
4.3.1 Potential and Kinetic Energy
4.3.2 Pressure Energy
4.3.3 Rotational Energy
4.4 Thermal Energy
4.4.1 Temperature
4.4.2 Internal Energy, Thermal Capacitance
4.4.3 Solids, Liquids, and Gases
4.5 Electrical Energy
4.5.1 Electric Current
4.5.2 Voltage
4.5.3 The Concept of an Electrical Circuit
4.5.4 Electrical Power and Energy
4.5.5 RMS Values of Currents and Voltages
4.6 Chemical Energy
4.6.1 Atoms and Molecules
4.6.2 Stoichiometry: Mass Balance in Chemical Reactions
4.6.3 Enthalpy: The Energy Side of Chemical Reactions.
4.7 Solar Energy
4.7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation
4.7.2 The Solar Spectrum
4.7.3 The Greenhouse effect
4.7.4 Solar Energy for Living Things
4.7.5 Food Calories
4.8 Nuclear Energy
4.8.1 The Nature of Radioactivity
4.8.2 Nuclear Fission
4.8.3 Nuclear Fusion
4.9 Summary
Chapter 5: Energy Analysis and Life-Cycle Assessment
5.1 Some Principles of Life-Cycle Thinking and Sustainability Analysis
5.2 Energy Analysis
5.2.1 Direct Conversion Efficiency (η)
5.2.2 Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROI)
5.2.3 Net Energy (NE) or Energy Balance
5.2.4 Energy Payback Time (EPBT)
5.3 Energy Audits, Energy Data Monitoring, and Energy Control and Management
5.3.1 Energy Audits
5.3.2 Monitoring with Energy Billing Information
5.3.3 Energy Data Logging
5.4 Economic Analysis of Energy Systems
5.4.1. Economic Value of Energy
5.4.2 Life-Cycle Costing and Time Value of Money
5.4.3 Economic Measures of Cost-Effectiveness
5.4.4 Performing Economic Analysis with Spreadsheets
5.4.5 Cost-Effectiveness and Market Penetration
5.5 Environmental Analysis of Energy and Material Systems
5.5.1 Air Pollutant and Carbon Emissions from Combustion of Fossil Fuels
5.5.2 Emission Rates for Electricity
5.5.3 Assessing Other Environmental Impacts of Energy Use
5.5.4 Calculating Your Carbon Footprint
5.6 Summary
Section III: Buildings and Energy
Chapter 6: Energy Efficiency for Buildings
6.1 Residential and Commercial Buildings
6.2 Site Energy versus Primary Energy
6.3 Introduction to Heat Loss Calculations
6.3.1 Basic Heat Transfer through the Building Envelope
6.3.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction
6.3.3 Heat Transfer by Convection
6.3.4 Radiation Heat Transfer
6.3.5 The Combined Convective-Radiative R-Value
6.4 Heat Loss through Windows
6.4.1 Single-Pane Window Analysis
6.4.2 Discomfort and Condensation Problems with Cold Windows
6.4.3 Improving the R-Value of Windows
6.4.4 Center-of-Glass R-Values and Edge Effects
6.5 Heat Loss through Walls, Ceilings, and Floors
6.5.1 Walls
6.5.2 Ceilings and Roofs
6.5.3 Floors
6.6 Heat Loss Due to Infiltration
6.6.1 Estimating Infiltration Rate (Blower-Door Approach)
6.6.2 How Tight Is "Too Tight" for Healthful Indoor Air Quality?
6.7 The Overall Heat Loss Factor
6.8 Let's Size a Furnace
6.9 Annual Cost of Heating
6.9.1 Internal Gains
6.9.2 Heating and Cooling Degree-Days
6.9.3 Annual Heating Load
6.10 Impacts of Improving Efficiency
6.11 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Systems
6.11.1 Forced-Air Central Heating Systems
6.11.2 Hydronic Systems
6.11.3 Compressive Air Conditioners
6.12 Heat Pumps
6.12.1 Geothermal Heat Pumps
6.12.2 Ductless Mini-Split Heat Pumps
6.13 Summary
Chapter 7: Solar Energy for Buildings: Approaching Zero Net Energy
7.1 The Solar Resource
7.1.1 Solar Angles to Help Us Design Overhangs
7.1.2 Sun Path Diagrams
7.1.3 Shadow Diagrams
7.1.4 Shadow Diagrams for Architectural Modeling
7.2 Energy-Efficient Building Design Strategies
7.2.1 The Importance of Building Orientation
7.2.2 South-Facing Windows for Solar Gains
7.3 Cooling Loads
7.3.1 Avoiding Cooling Loads
7.3.2 Better Windows to Reduce Cooling and Lighting Loads
7.3.3 Simple Cooling Calculations
7.3.4 Dehumidification
7.3.5 Human Comfort
7.4 Passive Solar Heating
7.4.1 A "Sun-Tempered" House
7.4.2 The Importance of Thermal Mass
7.4.3 Types of Passive Solar Heating Systems
7.4.4 Estimating Solar Performance
7.5 Domestic Water Heating
7.5.1 Heat Pump Water Heaters
7.5.2 Solar Thermal Hot Water Systems
7.6 Approaching Net Zero Solar Homes
7.7 Summary
Chapter 8: Whole Building to Zero Net Energy
8.1 The Evolution toward Green Buildings and Communities
8.2 Whole Building Energy Technologies: Electrical Appliances and Lighting
8.2.1 Appliance and Equipment Efficiency: Standards Push the Market
8.2.2 ENERGY STAR Appliances and Labeling
8.2.3 Energy for Lighting: The LED Revolution
8.2.4 Smart Buildings, Smart Homes
8.2.5 Determining Building Electricity Needs
8.3 Building Energy Codes and Standards: Toward Whole Building Energy
8.3.1 Building Energy Code Development and Adoption
8.3.2 Typical Building Energy Code Requirements
8.3.3 Assessing Code Compliance and the Home Energy Rating System (HERS)
8.4 Whole Building Life Cycle: Embodied Energy in Buildings
8.4.1 Life-Cycle and Embodied Energy in Buildings and Materials
8.4.2 Green Roofs and Other Natural Building Materials
8.4.3 Tools for Embodied Energy and Life-Cycle Analysis of Buildings
8.5 Green Building Ratings: Helping the Market Advance Whole Building Life Cycle
8.5.1 EPA's ENERGY STAR Homes and DOE's Zero Energy Ready Homes
8.5.2 USGBC's LEED Certification Program
8.5.3 Passive House, PHIUS and, DOE ZERH Standards
8.5.4 EarthCraft Certification Program
8.6 Zero Net Energy Buildings
8.7 Toward Whole Community Energy
8.7 Summary
Section IV: Sustainable Electricity
Chapter 9: Centralized Electric Power Systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Electromagnetism: The Technology Behind Electric Power
9.3 Creating the Modern Electric Utility: Edison, Westinghouse, and Insull
9.3.1 The Important Role of Transformers
9.3.2 The Battle between Edison and Westinghouse
9.3.3 Insull Develops the Business Side of Utilities
9.4 Electric Power Infrastructure
9.4.1 The North American Power Grid
9.4.2 Balancing the Grid
9.4.3 Load Duration Curves
9.5 Electric Power Generation
9.5.1 Conventional Coal-Fired, Steam Power Plants
9.5.2 Flue Gas Emission Controls
9.5.3 Combustion Turbines
9.5.4 Combined-Cycle Power Plants
9.5.5 Clean Coal: Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) Power Plants
9.5.6 Nuclear Power
9.5.7 Hydroelectric Power
9.6 Some Economics for Conventional Power Plants
9.6.1 Utilities and Nonutilities
9.6.2 Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE)
9.6.3 Potential Impact of Carbon Costs and Other Externalities
9.7 Summary
Chapter 10: Distributed Energy Resources
10.1 Balancing the Grid With DERs
10.2 Another Challenge: The "Duck Curve"
10.2.1 Challenges Raised by Duck Curves
10.2.2 Teaching the Duck to Fly
10.3 Demand Side Management (DSM)
10.3.1 Utility Decoupling
10.3.2 Conventional Utility Rate Structures (Before Smart Meters)
10.4 Demand Response (DR) Programs
10.4.1 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
10.4.2 Time-of-Use (TOU) Rates
10.4.3 Critical Peak Pricing
10.5 Energy Storage: Thermal
10.5.1 Managing Electric Water Heaters
10.5.2 Stanford Energy System Innovations (SESI)
10.5.3 Thermal Energy Storage with Ice
10.6 Energy Storage: Electrical
10.6.1 Energy Storage Technologies
10.6.2 Battery Storage
10.6.3 Applications of Stationary Storage
10.7 Distributed Generation (DG)
10.7.1 Combined-Heat-and-Power (CHP) Systems
10.7.2 Fuel Cells
10.7.3 Renewable Energy Coupled With Storage: A Carbon-Free Future?
10.8 Summary
Chapter 11: Photovoltaic Systems
11.1 Some Photovoltaic History
11.2 Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) Solar Cells
11.2.1 Photons to Create Hole-Electron Pairs
11.2.2 Band Gap Impact on Photovoltaic Efficiency
11.2.3 A Complete Silicon Solar Cell
11.3 Photovoltaic Fabrication
11.3.1 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells (c-Si)
11.3.2 Multijunction (Tandem) Cells to Increase Efficiency
11.3.3 Thin-Film Photovoltaics
11.4 From Cells to Modules to Arrays to Systems
11.4.1 Photovoltaic Module Electrical Characteristics
11.4.2 Basic System Concepts for Residential and Commercial Buildings
11.4.3 Introducing Energy Storage for Buildings
11.5 Estimating Solar Performance
11.5.1 A Simple Peak-Watts Approach
11.5.2 PVWatts
11.5.3 Impacts of Dirt, Shading, and Aging
11.6 Economics of Photovoltaic Systems
11.6.1 Photovoltaic System Costs
11.6.2 Evaluating the Economics for Residential PV Systems
11.6.3 Amortizing Costs
11.6.4 Including Tax Credits and Tax-Deductible Interest
11.6.5 Economics of Nonresidential PV Systems
11.7 Off-Grid Photovoltaic Systems
11.7.1 Small Systems Paid for with Mobile Money
11.7.2 Solar Home Systems
11.8 Summary
Chapter 12: Large-Scale Renewables
12.1 Distributed Solar Power
12.1.1 Community Solar
12.1.2 Community Choice Aggregation
12.1.3 Microgrids
12.1.4 Small Grids in Remote Regions of the World
12.2 Financing Utility-Scale Renewable Energy Systems
12.3 Wind Power
12.3.1 Historical Development of Wind Power
12.3.2 An Introduction to Wind Turbine Technology
12.3.3 Wind Turbine Power Curves
12.3.4 Power in the Wind
12.3.5 Combining Wind Statistics with Turbine Characteristics
12.3.6 Wind Turbine Capacity Factors
12.3.7 Offshore Wind Farms
12.3.8 Environmental Impacts of Wind
12.4 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems
12.4.1 Historical Development
12.4.2 The Importance of Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
12.5 Summary
Section V: Sustainable Transportation and Land Use
Chapter 13: Transportation Energy and Efficient Vehicles
13.1 Energy Use in Transportation
13.1.1 Transportation Energy Use in the U.S.: Uncertain Future?
13.1.1.1 U.S. Highway Transportation Energy Driven by Fuel Prices, Efficiency, Convenience
13.1.1.2 U.S. Freight Transportation
13.1.3 Overview of Transportation Energy Trends
13.2 Transportation Vehicle Energy Efficiency
13.2.1 Factors Affecting Vehicle Efficiency: Technology, Fuel Price, Policy, Consumer Choice
13.2.2 Vehicle Efficiency Regulations: Major Upgrade of U.S. CAFE Standards 2016-2025
13.2.3 Heavy Vehicle Efficiency: First-Time U.S. Efficiency Standards in Model Year 2016
13.2.4 Aircraft Energy Efficiency: International and U.S. Efforts to Reduce GHG Emissions
13.3 Vehicle Air Emissions and U.S. Standards: Major Tier 3 Reductions 2017-2025
13.4 Emerging Vehicle Technologies: Game Changers?
13.4.1 Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles
13.4.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
13.4.3 Plug-In Electric Drive Vehicles (PEVs)
13.4.4 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
13.5 Vehicle Technologies, Future Fuel Consumption Reduction, and Manufacturing Cost
13.5.1 Well-to-Wheels Analysis
13.5.2 Argonne National Laboratory Vehicle Assessment Project
13.5.3 Simple Well-to-Wheels Assessment: Gas, E85, HEV, PHEV, BEV, and FCEV Cars
13.6 Summary
Chapter 14: Alternative Fuels, Biofuels, and Biomass
14.1 Alternative Transportation Fuels
14.1.1 Life-Cycle Analysis of Alternative Fuels
14.1.2 Alternative-Fueling Infrastructure
14.1.3 Alternative Fuel Prices
14.1.4 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Markets
14.2 Prospects and Potential for Biomass Fuels
14.2.1 Current Use of Biomass Energy in the U.S.
14.2.2 U.S. Biomass Energy Potential: The Billion-Ton Study
14.3 Bioethanol Fuel
14.3.1 U.S. Renewable Fuels Standard Aims to Push Cellulosic Bioethanol
14.3.2 Bioethanol Production Processes
14.3.3 Net Energy and GHG Analysis of Bioethanol
14.4 Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel
14.4.1 Biodiesel Production
14.4.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks and Production Technologies
14.4.3 Biodiesel from Microalgae
14.5 Other Biomass Energy and Emerging Biotechnologies
14.5.1 Other Biomass Energy
14.5.2 Emerging Biotechnologies for Energy
14.6 Natural Gas and Hydrogen as Transportation Fuels
14.6.1 Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel
14.6.2 Hydrogen as a Transportation Fuel
14.7 Summary
Chapter 15: Whole Community Energy, Mobility, and Land Use
15.1 Community Transportation
15.1.1 Global Patterns of Community Transportation
15.1.2 U.S. Vehicle Miles Traveled and VMT per Capita
15.1.3 Public Transit Systems and Energy
15.2 Shared, Electric, Autonomous Mobility: The New Age of Urban Passenger Transport
15.2.1 The Changing World of Mobility
15.2.2 Future Outlook for Shared, Electric, Autonomous Mobility
15.2.3 Implications of Shared, Electric, Autonomous Mobility
15.3 Sustainable Mobility, Livable Communities, and Land Use
15.3.1 The Five Ds of Transport-Efficient Land Use
15.3.2 Urban Density and Transportation Energy Use
15.3.3 Mixed-Use, Pedestrian- and Transit-Oriented Development
15.3.4 Compact Development, Housing Size, Location, Transport, and Energy Use
15.3.5 Whole Community Energy in Green Development: LEED-ND Guidelines
15.3.6 Metropolitan Land Use and Transportation
15.3.7 Consumer Preferences Moving toward Urban Livable Communities
15.4 Beyond Mobility: Land Use, Urban Heat Island, and Solar Access
15.4.1 Land Use and the Urban Heat Island
15.4.2 Land Use and Solar Access
15.5 Community Energy and Climate Action Planning
15.5.1 NREL City-Level Energy Decision Making
15.5.2 ICLEI ClearPath Climate Action Process
15.5.3 ACEEE Local Energy Calculators
15.6 Summary
Section VI: Energy Policy and Planning
Chapter 16: Market Transformation to Sustainable Energy
16.1 Some Fundamentals of Market Transformation
16.1.1 Distinguishing Technical, Sociocultural, Economic, and Market Potential
16.1.2 Market Failure: Transaction Costs and Externalities
16.1.3 Noneconomic Factors and Market Transformation
16.2 The Techno-Economic Solutions
16.2.1 Technological Change and Diffusion of Innovation
16.2.2 The Price of Technology, the Experience Curve, and Learning Investments
16.3 The Policy Solutions
16.3.1 The Case for Market Intervention
16.3.2 The Range of Market Transformation Policies and Programs
16.3.3 Pitfalls of Market Transformation Programs
16.4 The Social Solutions
16.4.1 Energy Politics: Achieving Necessary Market Transformation Policies
16.4.2 Consumer Values and Choice
16.5 Summary
Chapter 17: Energy Policy
17.1 International Perspectives on Energy Policy
17.1.1 International Agreements: IPCC, UNFCCC, Kyoto, and Paris
17.1.2 Carbon Pricing May Be the Key to Success of the Paris Agreement
17.1.3 Innovations in Developed Countries
17.1.4 Progress Among Developing Countries
17.2 U.S. Federal Energy Policy
17.2.1 Overview and a Brief History
17.2.2 Federal Regulations Affecting Energy Production and Consumption
17.2.3 Federal Economic and Financial Energy Policies
17.2.4 Federal Energy Information and Education
17.3 Summary and Prospects for U.S. Federal Energy Policy
Chapter 18: U.S. State and Community Energy Policy and Planning
18.1 State Energy Policy
18.1.1 Which States Are Clean Energy Policy Leaders? ACEEE and Solar Rankings
18.1.2 State Energy Policies: Description and Distribution
18.1.3 State Utility Regulation
18.1.4 State Energy Policy Case Examples: Massachusetts, New York, California
18.2 Community Energy Planning and Policy
18.2.1 International Perspectives on Community Energy Plans and Policies
18.2.2 North American Cities Demonstrate the Possibilities of Local Energy Planning
18.2.3 Which U.S. Cities Lead the Way? ACEEE City Energy Efficiency Scorecard
18.2.4 Community Clean Energy Initiatives
18.3 Summary
References and Further Reading
Index
Acknowledgments
Section I: Energy Patterns and Trends
Chapter 1: The Energy Imperative and Patterns of Use
1.1 Our Energy Dilemma
1.2 Historical Perspective: Energy and Civilization
1.3 Global Energy Supply and Consumption
1.3.1 Explosive Growth of Energy as Developing World Begins to Catch Up
1.3.2 Continuing Dependency on Oil and Fossil Fuels
1.4 U.S. Energy Supply and Consumption
1.4.1 U.S. Energy Independence? Production Up, Consumption Flat, Imports Down
1.4.2 U.S. Energy Cleaner, More Efficient, More Independent Since 2007, but a Long Way to Go
1.5 Summary
1.5.1 Sustainable Energy: Improve Efficiency, Reduce Carbon, Replace Oil
Chapter 2: Energy Sources and Sustainability
2.1 Criteria for Sustainable Energy
2.2 Resource Limits of Fossil Fuels
2.2.1 Peak Oil Debate Revisited: Will the Peak Be Driven by Production or Consumption?
2.2.2 Natural Gas: Shale Gas Technology Extends Future Supplies but for How Long?
2.2.3 Coal More Plentiful but Constrained by Environmental Impacts
2.3 Environmental Limits of Fossil Fuels
2.3.1 Climate Change and Energy
2.3.2 Local and Regional Air Pollution
2.3.3 Fuel Extraction, Transport, and Other Impacts
2.4 Nuclear Power: Once Great Hope, Now in Decline
2.5 The Transition to Clean Energy Is Happening: Efficiency and Renewables
2.5.1 Energy Efficiency Is Making a Difference with More on the Way
2.5.2 Renewable Energy Growing Fast but Still Small Contribution
2.6 Summary
Chapter 3: Energy Futures
3.1 The Complexities of Our Changing Energy System
3.2 Planning and Visioning the Future
3.2.1 Projections and Forecasts
3.2.2 Technology Roadmaps
3.2.3 Needs Assessment and Solution Wedges
3.2.4 Developing Scenarios
3.3 Officialdom’s Vision of Our Energy Future: U.S. EIA and IEA Outlooks
3.3.1 U.S. EIA Annual Energy Outlook 2017: BAU
3.3.2 EIA International Energy Outlook
3.3.3 IEA World Energy Outlook 2016 Central Case
3.4 Future Energy Scenarios: Different Assumptions, Different Pathways, Different Futures
3.4.1 IEA’s WEO 2015: Visions of Desired Future Conditions
3.4.2 IPCC/UNFCCC Future Scenarios
3.5 Possible Energy Futures: Roadmaps to Sustainable Energy
3.5.1 Amory Lovins’s Reinventing Fire
3.5.2 NREL Renewables Futures Study: 80% Renewable U.S. Electricity by 2050
3.5.3 Pathways to Deep Decarbonization in the United States
3.5.4 The 100% Solution Project: Wind, Water, and Sun Can Do It All
3.6 Show Me the Money! Energy Market Forces and Investment Scenarios
3.6.1 Energy Investment and Divestment
3.6.2 Citigroup Forecast: Energy Darwinism II
3.6.3 BNEF Energy Outlook
3.7 Summary
Section II: Energy Fundamentals
Chapter 4: Energy Fundamentals
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basics of Energy Science
4.2.1 Introduction to the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
4.2.2 A Word About Units
4.2.3 The Distinction Between Energy and Power
4.3 Mechanical Energy
4.3.1 Potential and Kinetic Energy
4.3.2 Pressure Energy
4.3.3 Rotational Energy
4.4 Thermal Energy
4.4.1 Temperature
4.4.2 Internal Energy, Thermal Capacitance
4.4.3 Solids, Liquids, and Gases
4.5 Electrical Energy
4.5.1 Electric Current
4.5.2 Voltage
4.5.3 The Concept of an Electrical Circuit
4.5.4 Electrical Power and Energy
4.5.5 RMS Values of Currents and Voltages
4.6 Chemical Energy
4.6.1 Atoms and Molecules
4.6.2 Stoichiometry: Mass Balance in Chemical Reactions
4.6.3 Enthalpy: The Energy Side of Chemical Reactions.
4.7 Solar Energy
4.7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation
4.7.2 The Solar Spectrum
4.7.3 The Greenhouse effect
4.7.4 Solar Energy for Living Things
4.7.5 Food Calories
4.8 Nuclear Energy
4.8.1 The Nature of Radioactivity
4.8.2 Nuclear Fission
4.8.3 Nuclear Fusion
4.9 Summary
Chapter 5: Energy Analysis and Life-Cycle Assessment
5.1 Some Principles of Life-Cycle Thinking and Sustainability Analysis
5.2 Energy Analysis
5.2.1 Direct Conversion Efficiency (η)
5.2.2 Energy Return on Energy Investment (EROI)
5.2.3 Net Energy (NE) or Energy Balance
5.2.4 Energy Payback Time (EPBT)
5.3 Energy Audits, Energy Data Monitoring, and Energy Control and Management
5.3.1 Energy Audits
5.3.2 Monitoring with Energy Billing Information
5.3.3 Energy Data Logging
5.4 Economic Analysis of Energy Systems
5.4.1. Economic Value of Energy
5.4.2 Life-Cycle Costing and Time Value of Money
5.4.3 Economic Measures of Cost-Effectiveness
5.4.4 Performing Economic Analysis with Spreadsheets
5.4.5 Cost-Effectiveness and Market Penetration
5.5 Environmental Analysis of Energy and Material Systems
5.5.1 Air Pollutant and Carbon Emissions from Combustion of Fossil Fuels
5.5.2 Emission Rates for Electricity
5.5.3 Assessing Other Environmental Impacts of Energy Use
5.5.4 Calculating Your Carbon Footprint
5.6 Summary
Section III: Buildings and Energy
Chapter 6: Energy Efficiency for Buildings
6.1 Residential and Commercial Buildings
6.2 Site Energy versus Primary Energy
6.3 Introduction to Heat Loss Calculations
6.3.1 Basic Heat Transfer through the Building Envelope
6.3.2 Heat Transfer by Conduction
6.3.3 Heat Transfer by Convection
6.3.4 Radiation Heat Transfer
6.3.5 The Combined Convective-Radiative R-Value
6.4 Heat Loss through Windows
6.4.1 Single-Pane Window Analysis
6.4.2 Discomfort and Condensation Problems with Cold Windows
6.4.3 Improving the R-Value of Windows
6.4.4 Center-of-Glass R-Values and Edge Effects
6.5 Heat Loss through Walls, Ceilings, and Floors
6.5.1 Walls
6.5.2 Ceilings and Roofs
6.5.3 Floors
6.6 Heat Loss Due to Infiltration
6.6.1 Estimating Infiltration Rate (Blower-Door Approach)
6.6.2 How Tight Is "Too Tight" for Healthful Indoor Air Quality?
6.7 The Overall Heat Loss Factor
6.8 Let's Size a Furnace
6.9 Annual Cost of Heating
6.9.1 Internal Gains
6.9.2 Heating and Cooling Degree-Days
6.9.3 Annual Heating Load
6.10 Impacts of Improving Efficiency
6.11 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) Systems
6.11.1 Forced-Air Central Heating Systems
6.11.2 Hydronic Systems
6.11.3 Compressive Air Conditioners
6.12 Heat Pumps
6.12.1 Geothermal Heat Pumps
6.12.2 Ductless Mini-Split Heat Pumps
6.13 Summary
Chapter 7: Solar Energy for Buildings: Approaching Zero Net Energy
7.1 The Solar Resource
7.1.1 Solar Angles to Help Us Design Overhangs
7.1.2 Sun Path Diagrams
7.1.3 Shadow Diagrams
7.1.4 Shadow Diagrams for Architectural Modeling
7.2 Energy-Efficient Building Design Strategies
7.2.1 The Importance of Building Orientation
7.2.2 South-Facing Windows for Solar Gains
7.3 Cooling Loads
7.3.1 Avoiding Cooling Loads
7.3.2 Better Windows to Reduce Cooling and Lighting Loads
7.3.3 Simple Cooling Calculations
7.3.4 Dehumidification
7.3.5 Human Comfort
7.4 Passive Solar Heating
7.4.1 A "Sun-Tempered" House
7.4.2 The Importance of Thermal Mass
7.4.3 Types of Passive Solar Heating Systems
7.4.4 Estimating Solar Performance
7.5 Domestic Water Heating
7.5.1 Heat Pump Water Heaters
7.5.2 Solar Thermal Hot Water Systems
7.6 Approaching Net Zero Solar Homes
7.7 Summary
Chapter 8: Whole Building to Zero Net Energy
8.1 The Evolution toward Green Buildings and Communities
8.2 Whole Building Energy Technologies: Electrical Appliances and Lighting
8.2.1 Appliance and Equipment Efficiency: Standards Push the Market
8.2.2 ENERGY STAR Appliances and Labeling
8.2.3 Energy for Lighting: The LED Revolution
8.2.4 Smart Buildings, Smart Homes
8.2.5 Determining Building Electricity Needs
8.3 Building Energy Codes and Standards: Toward Whole Building Energy
8.3.1 Building Energy Code Development and Adoption
8.3.2 Typical Building Energy Code Requirements
8.3.3 Assessing Code Compliance and the Home Energy Rating System (HERS)
8.4 Whole Building Life Cycle: Embodied Energy in Buildings
8.4.1 Life-Cycle and Embodied Energy in Buildings and Materials
8.4.2 Green Roofs and Other Natural Building Materials
8.4.3 Tools for Embodied Energy and Life-Cycle Analysis of Buildings
8.5 Green Building Ratings: Helping the Market Advance Whole Building Life Cycle
8.5.1 EPA's ENERGY STAR Homes and DOE's Zero Energy Ready Homes
8.5.2 USGBC's LEED Certification Program
8.5.3 Passive House, PHIUS and, DOE ZERH Standards
8.5.4 EarthCraft Certification Program
8.6 Zero Net Energy Buildings
8.7 Toward Whole Community Energy
8.7 Summary
Section IV: Sustainable Electricity
Chapter 9: Centralized Electric Power Systems
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Electromagnetism: The Technology Behind Electric Power
9.3 Creating the Modern Electric Utility: Edison, Westinghouse, and Insull
9.3.1 The Important Role of Transformers
9.3.2 The Battle between Edison and Westinghouse
9.3.3 Insull Develops the Business Side of Utilities
9.4 Electric Power Infrastructure
9.4.1 The North American Power Grid
9.4.2 Balancing the Grid
9.4.3 Load Duration Curves
9.5 Electric Power Generation
9.5.1 Conventional Coal-Fired, Steam Power Plants
9.5.2 Flue Gas Emission Controls
9.5.3 Combustion Turbines
9.5.4 Combined-Cycle Power Plants
9.5.5 Clean Coal: Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) Power Plants
9.5.6 Nuclear Power
9.5.7 Hydroelectric Power
9.6 Some Economics for Conventional Power Plants
9.6.1 Utilities and Nonutilities
9.6.2 Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE)
9.6.3 Potential Impact of Carbon Costs and Other Externalities
9.7 Summary
Chapter 10: Distributed Energy Resources
10.1 Balancing the Grid With DERs
10.2 Another Challenge: The "Duck Curve"
10.2.1 Challenges Raised by Duck Curves
10.2.2 Teaching the Duck to Fly
10.3 Demand Side Management (DSM)
10.3.1 Utility Decoupling
10.3.2 Conventional Utility Rate Structures (Before Smart Meters)
10.4 Demand Response (DR) Programs
10.4.1 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
10.4.2 Time-of-Use (TOU) Rates
10.4.3 Critical Peak Pricing
10.5 Energy Storage: Thermal
10.5.1 Managing Electric Water Heaters
10.5.2 Stanford Energy System Innovations (SESI)
10.5.3 Thermal Energy Storage with Ice
10.6 Energy Storage: Electrical
10.6.1 Energy Storage Technologies
10.6.2 Battery Storage
10.6.3 Applications of Stationary Storage
10.7 Distributed Generation (DG)
10.7.1 Combined-Heat-and-Power (CHP) Systems
10.7.2 Fuel Cells
10.7.3 Renewable Energy Coupled With Storage: A Carbon-Free Future?
10.8 Summary
Chapter 11: Photovoltaic Systems
11.1 Some Photovoltaic History
11.2 Crystalline Silicon (c-Si) Solar Cells
11.2.1 Photons to Create Hole-Electron Pairs
11.2.2 Band Gap Impact on Photovoltaic Efficiency
11.2.3 A Complete Silicon Solar Cell
11.3 Photovoltaic Fabrication
11.3.1 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells (c-Si)
11.3.2 Multijunction (Tandem) Cells to Increase Efficiency
11.3.3 Thin-Film Photovoltaics
11.4 From Cells to Modules to Arrays to Systems
11.4.1 Photovoltaic Module Electrical Characteristics
11.4.2 Basic System Concepts for Residential and Commercial Buildings
11.4.3 Introducing Energy Storage for Buildings
11.5 Estimating Solar Performance
11.5.1 A Simple Peak-Watts Approach
11.5.2 PVWatts
11.5.3 Impacts of Dirt, Shading, and Aging
11.6 Economics of Photovoltaic Systems
11.6.1 Photovoltaic System Costs
11.6.2 Evaluating the Economics for Residential PV Systems
11.6.3 Amortizing Costs
11.6.4 Including Tax Credits and Tax-Deductible Interest
11.6.5 Economics of Nonresidential PV Systems
11.7 Off-Grid Photovoltaic Systems
11.7.1 Small Systems Paid for with Mobile Money
11.7.2 Solar Home Systems
11.8 Summary
Chapter 12: Large-Scale Renewables
12.1 Distributed Solar Power
12.1.1 Community Solar
12.1.2 Community Choice Aggregation
12.1.3 Microgrids
12.1.4 Small Grids in Remote Regions of the World
12.2 Financing Utility-Scale Renewable Energy Systems
12.3 Wind Power
12.3.1 Historical Development of Wind Power
12.3.2 An Introduction to Wind Turbine Technology
12.3.3 Wind Turbine Power Curves
12.3.4 Power in the Wind
12.3.5 Combining Wind Statistics with Turbine Characteristics
12.3.6 Wind Turbine Capacity Factors
12.3.7 Offshore Wind Farms
12.3.8 Environmental Impacts of Wind
12.4 Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) Systems
12.4.1 Historical Development
12.4.2 The Importance of Thermal Energy Storage (TES)
12.5 Summary
Section V: Sustainable Transportation and Land Use
Chapter 13: Transportation Energy and Efficient Vehicles
13.1 Energy Use in Transportation
13.1.1 Transportation Energy Use in the U.S.: Uncertain Future?
13.1.1.1 U.S. Highway Transportation Energy Driven by Fuel Prices, Efficiency, Convenience
13.1.1.2 U.S. Freight Transportation
13.1.3 Overview of Transportation Energy Trends
13.2 Transportation Vehicle Energy Efficiency
13.2.1 Factors Affecting Vehicle Efficiency: Technology, Fuel Price, Policy, Consumer Choice
13.2.2 Vehicle Efficiency Regulations: Major Upgrade of U.S. CAFE Standards 2016-2025
13.2.3 Heavy Vehicle Efficiency: First-Time U.S. Efficiency Standards in Model Year 2016
13.2.4 Aircraft Energy Efficiency: International and U.S. Efforts to Reduce GHG Emissions
13.3 Vehicle Air Emissions and U.S. Standards: Major Tier 3 Reductions 2017-2025
13.4 Emerging Vehicle Technologies: Game Changers?
13.4.1 Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles
13.4.2 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs)
13.4.3 Plug-In Electric Drive Vehicles (PEVs)
13.4.4 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs)
13.5 Vehicle Technologies, Future Fuel Consumption Reduction, and Manufacturing Cost
13.5.1 Well-to-Wheels Analysis
13.5.2 Argonne National Laboratory Vehicle Assessment Project
13.5.3 Simple Well-to-Wheels Assessment: Gas, E85, HEV, PHEV, BEV, and FCEV Cars
13.6 Summary
Chapter 14: Alternative Fuels, Biofuels, and Biomass
14.1 Alternative Transportation Fuels
14.1.1 Life-Cycle Analysis of Alternative Fuels
14.1.2 Alternative-Fueling Infrastructure
14.1.3 Alternative Fuel Prices
14.1.4 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Markets
14.2 Prospects and Potential for Biomass Fuels
14.2.1 Current Use of Biomass Energy in the U.S.
14.2.2 U.S. Biomass Energy Potential: The Billion-Ton Study
14.3 Bioethanol Fuel
14.3.1 U.S. Renewable Fuels Standard Aims to Push Cellulosic Bioethanol
14.3.2 Bioethanol Production Processes
14.3.3 Net Energy and GHG Analysis of Bioethanol
14.4 Biodiesel and Renewable Diesel
14.4.1 Biodiesel Production
14.4.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks and Production Technologies
14.4.3 Biodiesel from Microalgae
14.5 Other Biomass Energy and Emerging Biotechnologies
14.5.1 Other Biomass Energy
14.5.2 Emerging Biotechnologies for Energy
14.6 Natural Gas and Hydrogen as Transportation Fuels
14.6.1 Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel
14.6.2 Hydrogen as a Transportation Fuel
14.7 Summary
Chapter 15: Whole Community Energy, Mobility, and Land Use
15.1 Community Transportation
15.1.1 Global Patterns of Community Transportation
15.1.2 U.S. Vehicle Miles Traveled and VMT per Capita
15.1.3 Public Transit Systems and Energy
15.2 Shared, Electric, Autonomous Mobility: The New Age of Urban Passenger Transport
15.2.1 The Changing World of Mobility
15.2.2 Future Outlook for Shared, Electric, Autonomous Mobility
15.2.3 Implications of Shared, Electric, Autonomous Mobility
15.3 Sustainable Mobility, Livable Communities, and Land Use
15.3.1 The Five Ds of Transport-Efficient Land Use
15.3.2 Urban Density and Transportation Energy Use
15.3.3 Mixed-Use, Pedestrian- and Transit-Oriented Development
15.3.4 Compact Development, Housing Size, Location, Transport, and Energy Use
15.3.5 Whole Community Energy in Green Development: LEED-ND Guidelines
15.3.6 Metropolitan Land Use and Transportation
15.3.7 Consumer Preferences Moving toward Urban Livable Communities
15.4 Beyond Mobility: Land Use, Urban Heat Island, and Solar Access
15.4.1 Land Use and the Urban Heat Island
15.4.2 Land Use and Solar Access
15.5 Community Energy and Climate Action Planning
15.5.1 NREL City-Level Energy Decision Making
15.5.2 ICLEI ClearPath Climate Action Process
15.5.3 ACEEE Local Energy Calculators
15.6 Summary
Section VI: Energy Policy and Planning
Chapter 16: Market Transformation to Sustainable Energy
16.1 Some Fundamentals of Market Transformation
16.1.1 Distinguishing Technical, Sociocultural, Economic, and Market Potential
16.1.2 Market Failure: Transaction Costs and Externalities
16.1.3 Noneconomic Factors and Market Transformation
16.2 The Techno-Economic Solutions
16.2.1 Technological Change and Diffusion of Innovation
16.2.2 The Price of Technology, the Experience Curve, and Learning Investments
16.3 The Policy Solutions
16.3.1 The Case for Market Intervention
16.3.2 The Range of Market Transformation Policies and Programs
16.3.3 Pitfalls of Market Transformation Programs
16.4 The Social Solutions
16.4.1 Energy Politics: Achieving Necessary Market Transformation Policies
16.4.2 Consumer Values and Choice
16.5 Summary
Chapter 17: Energy Policy
17.1 International Perspectives on Energy Policy
17.1.1 International Agreements: IPCC, UNFCCC, Kyoto, and Paris
17.1.2 Carbon Pricing May Be the Key to Success of the Paris Agreement
17.1.3 Innovations in Developed Countries
17.1.4 Progress Among Developing Countries
17.2 U.S. Federal Energy Policy
17.2.1 Overview and a Brief History
17.2.2 Federal Regulations Affecting Energy Production and Consumption
17.2.3 Federal Economic and Financial Energy Policies
17.2.4 Federal Energy Information and Education
17.3 Summary and Prospects for U.S. Federal Energy Policy
Chapter 18: U.S. State and Community Energy Policy and Planning
18.1 State Energy Policy
18.1.1 Which States Are Clean Energy Policy Leaders? ACEEE and Solar Rankings
18.1.2 State Energy Policies: Description and Distribution
18.1.3 State Utility Regulation
18.1.4 State Energy Policy Case Examples: Massachusetts, New York, California
18.2 Community Energy Planning and Policy
18.2.1 International Perspectives on Community Energy Plans and Policies
18.2.2 North American Cities Demonstrate the Possibilities of Local Energy Planning
18.2.3 Which U.S. Cities Lead the Way? ACEEE City Energy Efficiency Scorecard
18.2.4 Community Clean Energy Initiatives
18.3 Summary
References and Further Reading
Index
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